All Nouns
Complete noun vocabulary from all CEFR levels in alphabetical order with definitions and example sentences.
aberration
A departure from what is normal or expected; a deviation from the standard.
Example
The committee dismissed the incident as an aberration rather than evidence of a systemic problem.
abeyance
A state of temporary suspension or inactivity, particularly regarding a right or practice.
Example
The proposed regulation was held in abeyance while the parliamentary committee completed its review.
ability
The fact that somebody/something is able to do something.
Example
People with the disease may lose their ability to communicate.
abortion
The deliberate ending of a pregnancy at an early stage.
Example
to support/oppose abortion
abrogation
The formal repeal or annulment of a law, agreement, or formal obligation.
Example
The abrogation of the treaty left both nations without a framework for resolving border disputes.
absence
The fact of somebody being away from a place where they are usually expected to be; the occasion or period of time when somebody is away.
Example
The decision was made in my absence (= while I was not there).
abstention
The act of refraining from participating in a vote or from indulging in something.
Example
Three members registered abstentions, preventing the motion from achieving the required majority.
abstinence
The practice of restraining oneself from indulging in something, especially alcohol or food.
Example
His prolonged abstinence from stimulants markedly improved both his concentration and his sleep.
abstract
Based on general ideas and not on any particular real person, thing or situation.
Example
abstract knowledge/principles
abyss
A deep or seemingly bottomless chasm; by extension, an immeasurable or profound depth of despair or complexity.
Example
Standing at the canyon's edge, she gazed into an abyss that seemed to swallow all sound.
academy
A school or college for special training.
Example
She trained at the Royal Academy of Music.
accent
A way of pronouncing the words of a language that shows which country, area or social class a person comes from; how well somebody pronounces a particular language.
Example
a northern/Dublin/Scottish accent
acceptance
The act of accepting a gift, an invitation, an offer, etc.
Example
Please confirm your acceptance of this offer in writing.
access
The opportunity or right to use something or to see somebody/something.
Example
High-speed internet access has become a necessity.
accession
The act of formally attaining or assuming a position of authority, or of joining an organisation or agreement.
Example
The nation's accession to the trade bloc was celebrated as a milestone in its diplomatic history.
accident
An unpleasant event, especially in a vehicle, that happens unexpectedly and causes injury or damage.
Example
a car/road/traffic accident
acclamation
Enthusiastic and public praise or approval, often expressed loudly by a group.
Example
The retiring director was received with acclamation when she entered the auditorium for the last time.
accolade
An award, honour, or expression of praise given in recognition of achievement.
Example
Winning the Booker Prize was the greatest accolade of her distinguished literary career.
accommodation
A place to live, work or stay in.
Example
rented/temporary accommodation
accomplice
A person who assists another in committing a crime or wrongdoing.
Example
The prosecution argued that the driver acted as a willing accomplice in the fraud scheme.
accomplishment
An impressive thing that is done or achieved after a lot of work.
Example
It was one of the President's greatest accomplishments.
account
An arrangement that somebody has with a bank, etc. to keep money there, take some out, etc.
Example
I don't have a bank account.
accountability
The fact of being responsible for your decisions or actions and expected to explain them when you are asked.
Example
proposals for greater police accountability
accountant
A person whose job is to keep or check financial accounts.
Example
We talked to the company’s chief accountant.
accreditation
Official recognition that an organisation or individual meets required standards of quality or competence.
Example
The university lost its accreditation after inspectors found persistent deficiencies in its research ethics procedures.
accumulation
The process of gradually increasing or getting more and more of something over a period of time.
Example
the accumulation of wealth
accuracy
The state of being exact or correct; the ability to do something with skill and without making mistakes.
Example
They questioned the accuracy of the information in the file.
accusation
A statement saying that you think a person is guilty of doing something wrong or illegal; the fact of accusing somebody.
Example
I don't want to make an accusation until I have some proof.
accused
A person who is on trial for committing a crime.
Example
The accused was found innocent.
achievement
A thing that somebody has done successfully, especially using their own effort and skill.
Example
the greatest scientific achievement of the decade
acid
A chemical, usually a liquid, that contains hydrogen and has a pH of less than seven. The hydrogen can be replaced by a metal to form a salt. Acids usually have a bitter sharp taste and can often burn holes in or damage things they touch.
Example
The acid burned a hole in her coat.
acquiescence
Reluctant acceptance of something without protest or active resistance.
Example
Her silence was taken as acquiescence, though privately she harboured serious misgivings about the plan.
acquisition
The act of getting something, especially knowledge, a skill, etc.
Example
theories of child language acquisition
acre
A unit for measuring an area of land; 4 840 square yards or about 4 050 square metres.
Example
3 000 acres of parkland
acrimony
Bitterness or ill feeling, especially in speech or manner.
Example
The negotiations collapsed amid acrimony, with both delegations trading public accusations of bad faith.
action
The process of doing something in order to make something happen or to deal with a situation.
Example
The time has come for action if these beautiful animals are to survive.
activation
The act of making something such as a device or chemical process start working.
Example
The activation of several target genes results in two major effects.
activist
A person who works to achieve political or social change, especially as a member of an organization with particular aims.
Example
human/civil/animal rights activists
activity
A thing that you do for interest or pleasure.
Example
leisure/outdoor/recreational activities
actor
A person who performs on the stage, on television or in films, especially as a profession.
Example
Both lead actors (= the ones who play the main parts) are outstanding.
actress
A woman who performs on the stage, on television or in films, especially as a profession.
Example
The Oscar-winning actress has taken a break from acting.
acuity
Sharpness or keenness of thought, vision, or hearing.
Example
The analyst's intellectual acuity allowed her to identify market patterns that her colleagues had overlooked.
acumen
The ability to make good judgements and take quick, decisive action, especially in a particular domain.
Example
His financial acumen was evident in the way he structured the acquisition to minimise tax liability.
ad
A notice, picture or film telling people about a product, job or service.
Example
The TV ads were first run last year.
adage
A short, widely known saying that expresses a general truth or piece of advice.
Example
The old adage "measure twice, cut once" applies as much to policy drafting as to carpentry.
adaptation
The action or process of changing something, or of being changed, to suit a new purpose or situation.
Example
the adaptation of buildings for military purposes
addiction
The condition of being unable to stop using or doing something as a habit, especially something harmful.
Example
cocaine addiction
addition
A thing that is added to something else.
Example
All of these technologies are fairly recent additions.
address
Details of where somebody lives or works and where letters, etc. can be sent.
Example
What's your name and address?
adherence
The quality of faithfully following or sticking to a rule, belief, or practice.
Example
Strict adherence to the protocol is essential to ensure the validity of the experimental results.
adherent
A person who supports or follows a particular cause, belief, or leader.
Example
The movement gained millions of adherents within a decade of its founding.
adjuration
A solemn or earnest appeal or entreaty directed at someone.
Example
His adjuration to the jury to set aside emotion and rely solely on evidence was carefully worded.
adjustment
A small change made to something in order to correct or improve it.
Example
I've made a few adjustments to the design.
administration
The activities that are done in order to plan, organize and run a business, school or other institution.
Example
Administration costs are passed on to the customer.
administrator
A person whose job is to manage and organize the public or business affairs of a company or an institution, or a person who works in an office dealing with records, accounts, etc.
Example
Such organizational decisions are made by the hospital administrators.
admission
The act of accepting somebody into an institution, organization, etc.; the right to enter a place or to join an institution or organization.
Example
Hospital admission is not necessary in most cases.
admittance
The process or fact of being allowed entry to a place or institution.
Example
Admittance to the archive reading room requires written authorisation from the chief archivist.
adolescent
A young person who is developing from a child into an adult.
Example
adolescents between the ages of 13 and 18 and the problems they face
adoption
The act of adopting a child; the fact of being adopted.
Example
She put the baby up for adoption.
adulation
Excessive admiration or praise, often considered obsequious or unwarranted.
Example
The young celebrity was visibly unsettled by the adulation that greeted her wherever she appeared.
adult
A fully grown person who is legally responsible for their actions.
Example
Children must be accompanied by an adult.
advance
Progress or a development in a particular activity or area of understanding.
Example
We live in an age of rapid technological advance.
advantage
A thing that helps you to be better or more successful than other people.
Example
a distinct/significant/huge advantage
advent
The arrival or beginning of a notable person, thing, or period.
Example
The advent of digital streaming fundamentally altered the economics of the music industry.
adventure
An unusual, exciting or dangerous experience, journey or series of events.
Example
her adventures travelling in Africa
adversary
A person or entity that opposes or contends with another; an opponent.
Example
The two rivals had once been colleagues before becoming the fiercest adversaries in the field.
adversity
A difficult or unfavourable situation, especially one that tests a person's resilience.
Example
She credits the adversity she faced in her youth with instilling the determination that drives her today.
advertisement
A notice, picture or film telling people about a product, job or service.
Example
a newspaper/television advertisement
advertising
The activity and industry of advertising things to people on television, in newspapers, on the internet, etc.
Example
Cigarette advertising has been banned.
advice
An opinion or a suggestion about what somebody should do in a particular situation.
Example
expert/practical/professional/medical advice
aegis
Protection, sponsorship, or guidance provided by a powerful individual or organisation.
Example
The research programme was conducted under the aegis of the World Health Organization.
affair
Events that are of public interest or political importance.
Example
world/international affairs
affectation
Behaviour, speech, or mannerisms adopted to impress others but regarded as insincere or pretentious.
Example
His affected use of obscure Latin phrases struck his colleagues as an annoying affectation.
affection
The feeling of liking or loving somebody/something very much and caring about them.
Example
Children need lots of love and affection.
affidavit
A written statement confirmed by oath, used as evidence in legal proceedings.
Example
Three witnesses submitted affidavits corroborating the defendant's account of events that evening.
affinity
A natural liking or sympathy for something or someone; a close similarity or connection.
Example
She felt an immediate affinity with the protagonist of the novel, whose struggles mirrored her own.
affliction
A cause of persistent pain, distress, or suffering.
Example
Chronic insomnia is an affliction that impairs cognitive function and diminishes quality of life.
aftermath
The situation that exists as a result of an important (and usually unpleasant) event, especially a war, an accident, etc.
Example
A lot of rebuilding took place in the aftermath of the war.
afternoon
The period of time from 12 o'clock in the middle of the day until about 6 o’clock in the evening.
Example
this/yesterday/tomorrow afternoon
age
The number of years that a person has lived or a thing has existed.
Example
You're the same age as my brother.
agency
A business or an organization that provides a particular service especially when representing other businesses or organizations.
Example
She works for an advertising agency.
agenda
A list of items to be discussed at a meeting.
Example
We have a very full agenda of issues to discuss.
agent
A person whose job is to act for, or manage the affairs of, other people in business, politics, etc.
Example
Our agent in New York deals with all US sales.
aggression
Feelings of anger and hate that may result in threatening or violent behaviour.
Example
The research shows that computer games may cause aggression.
agreement
An arrangement, a promise or a contract made with somebody.
Example
an international peace agreement
aid
Money, food, etc. that is sent to help countries in difficult situations.
Example
humanitarian/food/medical aid
AIDS
A serious illness caused by a virus called HIV that attacks the body’s ability to resist infection (the abbreviation for ‘Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome’).
Example
the AIDS epidemic
aim
The purpose of doing something; what somebody is trying to achieve.
Example
the stated aims of the study
aircraft
Any vehicle that can fly and carry goods or passengers.
Example
fighter/transport/military aircraft
airline
A company that provides regular flights to take passengers and goods to different places.
Example
an airline pilot/passenger
airport
A place where planes land and take off and that has buildings for passengers to wait in.
Example
Gatwick Airport
alacrity
Brisk and cheerful readiness to do something.
Example
The team embraced the new methodology with an alacrity that surprised even its most optimistic advocates.
alarm
A loud noise or a signal that warns people of danger or of a problem.
Example
She decided to sound the alarm (= warn people that the situation was dangerous).
album
A book in which you keep photographs, stamps, etc.
Example
a photo album
alchemy
A seemingly magical process of transformation, creation, or combination; historically, the medieval quest to transmute metals into gold.
Example
There is a certain alchemy in great teaching that transforms confusion into genuine understanding.
alcohol
Drinks such as beer, wine, etc. that can make people drunk.
Example
He never drinks alcohol.
alien
A person who is not a citizen of the country in which they live or work.
Example
an illegal alien
allegation
A public statement that is made without giving proof, accusing somebody of doing something that is wrong or illegal.
Example
to investigate/deny/withdraw an allegation
allegiance
Loyalty or commitment to a person, group, cause, or country.
Example
As geopolitical pressures intensified, several smaller states were forced to declare their allegiance openly.
allegory
A story, poem, or picture in which the characters and events represent broader moral or political meanings.
Example
Orwell's novel functions as a political allegory exposing the mechanisms of totalitarian control.
alliance
An agreement between countries, political parties, etc. to work together in order to achieve something that they all want.
Example
to form/make an alliance
allocation
An amount of money, space, etc. that is given to somebody for a particular purpose.
Example
We have spent our entire allocation for the year.
allowance
An amount of money that is given to somebody regularly or for a particular purpose.
Example
an allowance of $20 a day
allusion
An indirect or passing reference to something, typically assuming the audience will recognise it.
Example
The speech was dense with allusions to classical philosophy that many in the audience failed to catch.
ally
A country that has agreed to help and support another country, especially in case of a war.
Example
our European/NATO allies
altercation
A noisy argument or angry dispute.
Example
A brief altercation between two delegates threatened to derail the summit's opening session.
alternative
A thing that you can choose to do or have out of two or more possibilities.
Example
The car is too expensive so we're trying to find a cheaper alternative.
aluminum
A lightweight silvery-white metal.
Example
Cans are often made of aluminum.
amalgamation
The action of combining or uniting two or more things into a single entity.
Example
The amalgamation of the two research institutes created one of the largest scientific bodies in the region.
ambassador
An official who lives in a foreign country as the senior representative there of their own country.
Example
the British Ambassador to Italy/in Rome
ambiguity
The quality of being open to more than one interpretation; inexactness or uncertainty of meaning.
Example
The deliberate ambiguity of the clause left both parties free to interpret it in their own favour.
ambition
Something that you want to do or achieve very much.
Example
She had fulfilled her lifelong ambition.
ambulance
A vehicle with special equipment, used for taking sick or injured people to a hospital.
Example
Call an ambulance!
amendment
A small change or improvement that is made to a document or proposed new law; the process of changing a document or proposed new law.
Example
to introduce/propose/table an amendment (= to suggest it)
amount
A quantity of something.
Example
I was amazed at the amount he could eat.
anachronism
A thing or practice that belongs to a different, typically earlier, period than the one in which it exists.
Example
The insistence on handwritten reports felt like an anachronism in an otherwise digital workplace.
analogy
A comparison of one thing with another thing that has similar features; a feature that is similar.
Example
analogy (between A and B), The teacher drew an analogy between the human heart and a pump.
analysis
The detailed study or examination of something in order to understand more about it; the result of the study.
Example
statistical/data analysis
analyst
A person whose job involves examining facts or materials in order to give an opinion on them.
Example
a political/financial analyst
anarchy
A state of disorder or lawlessness due to the absence or collapse of governing authority.
Example
When the power grid failed for a week, the city teetered on the edge of social anarchy.
anathema
Something or someone that is greatly detested or loathed; a formal ecclesiastical curse.
Example
Compromise on this foundational principle was anathema to the movement's most committed members.
ancestor
A person in your family who lived a long time ago.
Example
His ancestors had come to America from Ireland.
anchor
A heavy metal object that is attached to a rope or chain and dropped over the side of a ship or boat to keep it in one place.
Example
to drop anchor
anecdote
A short, entertaining account of a real or fictional incident or person.
Example
The professor illustrated his point with an anecdote about a nineteenth-century physicist's accidental discovery.
angel
A spirit who is believed to be a servant of God, and is sent by God to deliver a message or perform a task. Angels are often shown dressed in white, with wings.
Example
a host of angels
anger
The strong feeling that you have when something has happened that you think is bad and unfair.
Example
She had to find a way to express her pent-up anger.
angle
The space between two lines or surfaces that join, measured in degrees.
Example
a 45° angle
anguish
Severe mental or physical pain or suffering.
Example
The anguish of losing a child is a grief that never fully recedes, according to those who have endured it.
animal
A creature that is not a bird, a fish, a reptile, an insect or a human.
Example
the animals and birds of South America
animation
The process of making films, videos and computer games in which drawings, models or images of people and animals seem to move.
Example
computer/cartoon animation
animosity
Strong hostility or ill-feeling directed at someone or something.
Example
Decades of animosity between the two factions made any lasting peace settlement extremely difficult to achieve.
ankle
The joint connecting the foot to the leg; the narrow part of the leg just above the ankle joint.
Example
to sprain/break/twist your ankle
annihilation
Complete destruction or obliteration of something.
Example
The military campaign ended in the annihilation of the opposing force's logistical capacity.
anniversary
A date that is an exact number of years after the date of an important or special event.
Example
on the anniversary of his wife’s death
announcement
A spoken or written statement that informs people about something.
Example
to make an announcement
annum
A year, used chiefly in formal or financial contexts (as in "per annum").
Example
The endowment generates approximately two million pounds per annum to fund postdoctoral research.
anomaly
Something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected.
Example
The data point was flagged as an anomaly and subjected to further scrutiny before being accepted.
answer
Something that you say, write or do to react to a question or situation.
Example
I rang the bell, but there was no answer.
antecedent
A thing or event that existed before or logically precedes another; in grammar, the noun to which a pronoun refers.
Example
To understand the crisis, one must examine its antecedents in the political decisions of the preceding decade.
antidote
A remedy that counteracts a poison or disease; more broadly, something that counteracts an unpleasant feeling or situation.
Example
Many people find physical exercise an effective antidote to the mental fatigue of sedentary office work.
antipathy
A deep-seated feeling of aversion or dislike towards something or someone.
Example
Her antipathy towards bureaucratic procedures often put her at odds with the institution's administration.
antiquity
The ancient past, especially before the Middle Ages; an object or relic from ancient times.
Example
The museum's collection spans from prehistoric artefacts to works from late antiquity.
antithesis
A person or thing that is the direct opposite of another; a rhetorical contrast of ideas through parallel structures.
Example
His frugal lifestyle was the antithesis of the extravagant image projected by his public persona.
anxiety
The state of feeling nervous or worried that something bad is going to happen.
Example
acute/intense/deep anxiety
apartment
A set of rooms for living in, usually on one floor of a building.
Example
an apartment building
aperture
An opening, gap, or hole, particularly in a camera lens or an optical instrument.
Example
A wider aperture allows more light onto the sensor, enabling sharper images in low-light conditions.
apex
The top or highest point of something; the peak of a hierarchy or achievement.
Example
Winning the Nobel Prize represented the apex of a career devoted to understanding climate systems.
aplomb
Self-confidence and composure, especially in difficult or testing situations.
Example
She handled the hostile interviewer's provocations with remarkable aplomb and dignity.
apology
A word or statement saying sorry for something that has been done wrong or that causes a problem.
Example
to offer/make/demand/accept an apology
apostle
An ardent early supporter of a new idea, cause, or movement; originally, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus.
Example
He became an apostle of evidence-based medicine during a period when anecdote still dominated clinical practice.
app
A piece of software that you can download to a device such as a smartphone or tablet, for example to look up information or to play a game.
Example
You first need to install the app on your device.
apparatus
The tools or other pieces of equipment that are needed for a particular activity or task.
Example
a piece of laboratory apparatus
apparition
A remarkable or unexpected sight; a ghost or ghostlike image of a person.
Example
The fog-wreathed figure at the window appeared to him like an apparition from another era.
appearance
The way that somebody/something looks on the outside; what somebody/something seems to be.
Example
the physical/outward/external appearance of something
appellation
A name or title by which a person, place, or thing is known or called.
Example
The region earned the appellation "Silicon Valley of the East" through its concentration of technology firms.
appetite
Physical desire for food.
Example
He suffered from headaches and loss of appetite.
apple
A round fruit with shiny red or green skin that is fairly hard and white inside.
Example
Peel and core the apples.
applicant
A person who makes a formal request for something (= applies for it), especially for a job, a place at a college or university, etc.
Example
There were over 500 applicants for the job.
application
A formal (often written) request for something, such as a job, permission to do something or a place at a college or university.
Example
a planning/patent/visa application
appreciation
Pleasure that you have when you recognize and enjoy the good qualities of somebody/something.
Example
She shows little appreciation of good music.
apprehension
Anxiety or fear about a future event; the act of arresting or seizing someone.
Example
A sense of apprehension settled over the delegation as the deadline for a response passed without reply.
approach
A way of dealing with somebody/something; a way of doing or thinking about something such as a problem or a task.
Example
She took the wrong approach in her dealings with them.
approval
The feeling that somebody/something is good or acceptable; a positive opinion of somebody/something.
Example
She desperately wanted to win her father's approval.
April
The fourth month of the year, between March and May.
Example
in April, She was born in April.
aptitude
A natural tendency or ability to do something well.
Example
Her aptitude for languages was apparent from childhood, when she effortlessly acquired her third tongue.
arbiter
A person or organisation with the authority to judge or settle a dispute; an authoritative figure in a particular sphere.
Example
The court serves as the ultimate arbiter of constitutional disputes in the federation.
archetype
An original model or pattern from which copies are made; a recurrent symbol or motif in literature or psychology.
Example
The reluctant hero is an archetype that appears across cultures and literary traditions throughout history.
archipelago
A group or chain of islands; a sea containing many scattered islands.
Example
The archipelago's remoteness had preserved its distinctive biodiversity largely intact until the twentieth century.
architect
A person whose job is designing buildings.
Example
The house was designed by architect Louis Kahn.
architecture
The art and study of designing buildings.
Example
to study architecture
archive
A collection of historical documents or records of a government, a family, a place or an organization; the place where these records are stored.
Example
the National Sound Archive
ardour
Intense enthusiasm or passion.
Example
The young activist pursued the cause with an ardour that inspired veterans of the movement.
area
Part of a place, town, etc., or a region of a country or the world.
Example
to improve access to services in rural areas
arena
A place with a flat open area in the middle and seats around it where people can watch sports and entertainment.
Example
a concert at Wembley Arena
argument
A conversation or discussion in which two or more people disagree, often angrily.
Example
to win/lose an argument
arm
Either of the two long parts that stick out from the top of the body and connect the shoulders to the hands.
Example
He escaped with only a broken arm.
armistice
A formal agreement between warring parties to suspend hostilities; a truce.
Example
The armistice was signed at dawn, ending four years of devastating conflict across the continent.
arms
Weapons, especially as used by the army, navy, etc.
Example
arms and ammunition
army
A large organized group of soldiers who are trained to fight on land.
Example
The two opposing armies faced each other across the battlefield.
arrangement
A plan or preparation that you make so that something can happen.
Example
Travel and accommodation arrangements have been finalized.
array
A group or collection of things or people, often one that is large or impressive.
Example
a vast array of bottles of different shapes and sizes
arrival
An act of coming or being brought to a place.
Example
We apologize for the late arrival of the train.
arrogance
An exaggerated sense of one's own importance or abilities, often displayed offensively.
Example
The minister's arrogance in dismissing expert opinion ultimately undermined his credibility with the public.
arrow
A thin stick with a sharp point at one end, which is shot from a bow.
Example
a bow and arrow
art
The use of the imagination to express ideas or feelings, particularly in painting, drawing or sculpture.
Example
modern/contemporary art
article
A piece of writing about a particular subject in a newspaper or magazine, on a website, etc.
Example
to read/write/publish an article
artifice
Clever or cunning devices or expedients, especially used to deceive; skilful contrivance.
Example
The diplomat's negotiating style relied more on artifice than on straightforward candour.
artisan
A worker skilled in a particular craft that requires manual dexterity or artistic ability.
Example
The cooperative brought together artisans from twelve villages to market their handwoven textiles internationally.
artist
A person who creates works of art, especially paintings or drawings.
Example
an exhibition of work by contemporary British artists
artwork
Pictures and photographs prepared for books, magazines, etc.
Example
Can you let me have the finished artwork for the poster by Friday?
ascendancy
A position of dominant power or influence over others.
Example
The party's ascendancy in regional politics was built on decades of grassroots organisation.
ash
The grey or black powder that is left after something, especially tobacco, wood or coal, has burnt.
Example
cigarette ash
aside
A remark made quietly so that not everyone can hear it, often in a play directly to the audience.
Example
"He has no idea what he is talking about," she said in an aside to her colleague.
aspect
A particular part or feature of a situation, an idea, a problem, etc.; a way in which it may be considered.
Example
The book aims to cover all aspects of city life.
aspersion
An attack on the reputation or integrity of someone; a false or misleading charge.
Example
She resented the aspersions cast on her professional conduct by colleagues who had no direct knowledge of the matter.
aspiration
A strong desire to have or do something.
Example
I didn't realize you had political aspirations.
assassination
The murder of an important or famous person, especially for political reasons.
Example
The president survived a number of assassination attempts.
assault
The crime of attacking somebody physically.
Example
Both men were charged with assault.
assembly
A group of people who have been elected to meet together regularly and make decisions or laws for a particular region or country.
Example
state/legislative/federal/local assemblies
assertion
A statement saying that you strongly believe something to be true.
Example
He was correct in his assertion that the minister had been lying.
assessment
An opinion or a judgement about somebody/something that has been thought about very carefully.
Example
a detailed assessment of the risks involved
asset
A person or thing that is valuable or useful to somebody/something.
Example
In his job, patience is an invaluable asset.
assignment
A task or piece of work that somebody is given to do, usually as part of their job or studies.
Example
Students are required to complete all homework assignments.
assist
In team sports, an action that directly helps a teammate to score a goal or point.
Example
She set up two assists in the second half of the game.
assistance
Help or support.
Example
technical/economic/military assistance
assistant
A person who helps or supports somebody, usually in their job.
Example
My assistant will now demonstrate the machine in action.
associate
A person you work with, do business with, or share an activity with.
Example
He introduced me to one of his business associates.
association
An official group of people who have joined together for a particular purpose.
Example
Do you belong to any professional or trade associations?
assumption
A belief or feeling that something is true or that something will happen, although there is no proof.
Example
an underlying/implicit assumption
assurance
A statement that something will certainly be true or will certainly happen, particularly when there has been doubt about it.
Example
They called for assurances that the government is committed to its education policy.
asylum
Protection that a government gives to people who have left their own country, usually because they were in danger for political reasons.
Example
to seek/apply for/be granted asylum
athlete
A person who competes in sports.
Example
Olympic athletes
atrocity
A cruel and violent act, especially in a war.
Example
In the war, both sides committed atrocities.
attachment
A document that you send to somebody using email.
Example
No attachment was included.
attempt
An act of trying to do something, especially something difficult, often with no success.
Example
I passed my driving test at the first attempt.
attendance
The act of being present at a place, for example at school.
Example
Attendance at these lectures is not compulsory.
attention
The act of listening to, looking at or thinking about something/somebody carefully; interest that people show in somebody/something.
Example
the report’s attention to detail
attorney
A lawyer, especially one who can act for somebody in court.
Example
The prosecuting attorney began with a short opening statement.
attraction
An interesting or lively place to go or thing to do.
Example
Buckingham Palace is a major tourist attraction.
attrition
The gradual reduction in strength or effectiveness through sustained pressure or loss over time.
Example
The company's strategy relied on attrition, waiting for competitors to exhaust their resources before expanding.
auction
A public sale in which things are sold to the person who offers the most money for them.
Example
an auction of paintings
audacity
A willingness to take bold risks; rude or disrespectful behaviour.
Example
It took considerable audacity to challenge the prevailing consensus at such an early stage of her career.
audience
The group of people who have gathered to watch or listen to something (a play, concert, somebody speaking, etc.).
Example
The audience was/were clapping for 10 minutes.
audio
Connected with sound that is recorded.
Example
audio and video recordings/files/clips
author
A person who writes books or the person who wrote a particular book.
Example
Who is your favourite author?
authority
The power to give orders to people.
Example
in a position of authority
auto
A car.
Example
the auto industry
autocracy
A system of government in which a single person possesses unlimited, unchecked power.
Example
The transition from autocracy to pluralism proved far more protracted than the reformers had anticipated.
autocrat
A ruler who holds absolute, unrestrained power; a person who insists on complete obedience from others.
Example
The general governed as an autocrat, brooking no criticism and tolerating no institutional constraints.
autonomy
The freedom for a country, a region or an organization to govern itself independently.
Example
a campaign in Wales for greater autonomy
autumn
The season of the year between summer and winter, when leaves change colour and the weather becomes colder.
Example
in the autumn of 2010
availability
The fact that something is possible to get, buy or find.
Example
the availability of cheap flights
avarice
Extreme greed for wealth or material gain.
Example
The collapse of the firm was attributed as much to avarice at the executive level as to market conditions.
average
The result of adding several amounts together, finding a total, and dividing the total by the number of amounts.
Example
The average of 4, 5 and 9 is 6.
aversion
A strong dislike or disinclination towards something.
Example
His deep aversion to public speaking had long limited his effectiveness as a political communicator.
award
A prize such as money, etc. for something that somebody has done.
Example
He was nominated for the best actor award.
awareness
Knowing something; knowing that something exists and is important.
Example
an awareness of the importance of eating a healthy diet
axiom
A statement or proposition regarded as self-evidently true and accepted without proof as a basis for reasoning.
Example
In classical economics, the rational self-interest of individuals was treated as an unquestioned axiom.
baby
A very young child or animal.
Example
The baby's crying!
back
The part of the human body that is on the opposite side to the chest, between the neck and the tops of the legs; the part of an animal’s body that corresponds to this.
Example
on your back, He was lying on his back on the sofa.
backdrop
Everything that can be seen around an event or scene.
Example
The mountains provided a dramatic backdrop for our picnic.
background
The details of a person’s family, education, experience, etc.
Example
somebody's ethnic/genetic/cultural background
backing
Help and support from somebody to do something; financial support for something.
Example
The police gave the proposals their full backing.
backlash
A strong negative reaction by a large number of people to a social or political development.
Example
The proposed legislation provoked a fierce backlash from civil liberties organisations across the country.
backup
Extra help or support that you can get if necessary.
Example
The police had backup from the army.
backward
Directed towards the back or rear. / Having made less progress than is normal or expected.
Example
He took a step backward.
bacteria
The simplest and smallest forms of life. Bacteria exist in large numbers in air, water and soil, and also in living and dead creatures and plants, and are often a cause of disease.
Example
Neither chilling nor freezing kills all bacteria.
badge
A small piece of metal or plastic, with a design or words on it, that a person wears or carries to show that they belong to an organization, support something, have achieved something, have a particular rank, etc.
Example
She wore a badge saying ‘Vote for Coates’.
bail
Money that somebody agrees to pay if a person accused of a crime does not appear at their trial. When bail has been arranged, the accused person is allowed to go free until the trial.
Example
Can anyone put up bail for you?
balance
A situation in which different things exist in equal, correct or good amounts.
Example
This newspaper maintains a good balance in its presentation of different opinions.
ballast
Heavy material placed in a ship or aircraft to stabilise it; something that gives stability or substance.
Example
The professor's methodological rigour provided intellectual ballast to what might otherwise have been a speculative argument.
ballet
A style of dancing that tells a dramatic story with music but no talking or singing.
Example
She wants to be a ballet dancer.
balloon
A small bag made of very thin rubber that becomes larger and rounder when you fill it with air or gas. Balloons are brightly coloured and used as decorations or toys.
Example
to blow up/burst/pop a balloon
ballot
The system of voting in writing and usually in secret; an occasion on which a vote is held.
Example
The chairperson is chosen by secret ballot.
balm
A substance that soothes pain or heals wounds; something that gives comfort or relief.
Example
After weeks of relentless criticism, the warm review was a welcome balm to her bruised confidence.
banana
A long curved fruit with a thick yellow skin and that is soft inside, which grows on trees in hot countries.
Example
a bunch of bananas
band
A small group of musicians who play popular music together, often with a singer or singers.
Example
a rock/punk/jazz band
bane
A cause of great distress, irritation, or destruction.
Example
Procrastination was the perennial bane of his academic career, costing him several important opportunities.
bank
An organization that provides various financial services, for example keeping or lending money.
Example
I don't have much money in the bank at the end of the month.
bankruptcy
The state of being completely lacking in a particular quality or value.
Example
The company filed for bankruptcy.
banner
A long piece of cloth with a message on it that is carried between two poles or hung in a public place to show support for something.
Example
A huge banner over the street said ‘Welcome home’.
bargain
A thing bought for less than the usual price.
Example
I picked up a few good bargains in the sale.
barrage
A concentrated outpouring of questions, criticisms, or complaints; a sustained artillery bombardment.
Example
The minister faced a barrage of hostile questions from opposition members during the emergency debate.
barrel
A large round container, usually made of wood or metal, with flat ends and, usually, curved sides.
Example
a beer/wine barrel
barrier
An object like a fence that prevents people from moving forward from one place to another.
Example
The crowd had to stand behind barriers.
base
The lowest part of something, especially the part or surface on which it rests or stands.
Example
The lamp has a heavy base.
baseball
A game played especially in the US by two teams of nine players, using a bat and ball. Each player tries to hit the ball and then run around four bases before the other team can return the ball.
Example
a baseball bat/team/cap/fan/player/game
basement
A room or rooms in a building, partly or completely below the level of the ground.
Example
Kitchen goods are sold in the basement.
basic
Forming the part of something that is most necessary and from which other things develop.
Example
basic information/facts/ideas
basis
The way things are organized or arranged; how often something happens.
Example
We are in contact on a regular basis.
basket
A container for holding or carrying things. Baskets are made of long thin pieces of material that bends and twists easily, for example plastic, wire or wicker.
Example
a shopping basket
basketball
A game played by two teams of five players, using a large ball which players try to throw into a high net hanging from a ring.
Example
a basketball game/coach/team/player
bass
The lowest tone or part in music, for instruments or voices.
Example
He always plays his stereo with the bass turned right up.
bastion
A place or person strongly defending or upholding particular principles or activities; a projecting part of a fortification.
Example
The university has long been regarded as a bastion of liberal thought and free inquiry.
bat
A piece of wood with a handle, made in various shapes and sizes, and used for hitting the ball in games such as baseball, cricket and table tennis.
Example
a baseball/cricket bat
bath
A large, long container that you put water in and then get into to wash your whole body.
Example
I'm in the bath!
bathroom
A room in which there is a bath, a washbasin and often a toilet.
Example
Go and wash your hands in the bathroom.
battery
A device that is placed inside a car engine, clock, radio, etc. and that produces the electricity that makes it work.
Example
to replace the batteries
battle
A fight between armies, ships or planes, especially during a war; a violent fight between groups of people.
Example
Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
battlefield
A place where a battle is being fought or has been fought.
Example
heavy casualties on the battlefield
bay
A part of the sea, or of a large lake, partly surrounded by a wide curve of the land.
Example
the Bay of Bengal
beach
An area of sand or small stones (called shingle), next to the sea or a lake.
Example
on the beach, tourists sunbathing on the beach
beam
A line of light, electromagnetic waves or particles.
Example
narrow beams of light/sunlight
bean
A seed, or pod containing seeds, of a climbing plant, eaten as a vegetable. There are several types of bean and the plants that they grow on are also called beans.
Example
green beans
beast
An animal, especially one that is large or dangerous, or one that is unusual.
Example
wild/savage/ferocious beasts
beauty
The quality of giving pleasure to the senses or to the mind.
Example
the beauty of the sunset/of poetry/of his singing
bedlam
A scene of uproar and confusion.
Example
The announcement of the results triggered absolute bedlam on the trading floor.
bedroom
A room for sleeping in.
Example
the spare/guest bedroom
bee
A black and yellow flying insect that can sting (= touch your skin and make you feel a sharp pain).Bees live in large groups and make honey (= a sweet sticky substance that is good to eat).
Example
Bees were buzzing in the clover.
beef
Meat that comes from a cow.
Example
roast beef
beer
An alcoholic drink made from malt with hops added to give it taste. There are many types of beer.
Example
a pint/can/bottle of beer
beginning
The time when something starts; the first part of an event, a story, etc.
Example
A story has to have a beginning, middle, and end.
behalf
In order to help somebody.
Example
He began a petition in behalf of the farmers.
behavior
The way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others.
Example
His behavior in class was unacceptable.
behemoth
A huge or monstrous creature; something of enormous size and power.
Example
The merger created a corporate behemoth that dominated three distinct markets simultaneously.
being
Existence.
Example
The Irish Free State came into being in 1922.
belief
A strong feeling that something/somebody exists or is true; confidence that something/somebody is good or right.
Example
I admire his passionate belief in what he is doing.
bell
A hollow metal object, often like a cup in shape, that makes a ringing sound when hit by a small piece of metal inside it; the sound that it makes.
Example
A peal of church bells rang out in the distance.
bellwether
A person or thing that leads or indicates trends; an early indicator of future developments.
Example
The constituency has long served as a bellwether for national electoral trends.
belt
A long narrow piece of leather, cloth, etc. that you wear around the middle part of your body.
Example
to do up/fasten/tighten a belt
bench
A long seat for two or more people, usually made of wood.
Example
a park bench
benchmark
Something that can be measured and used as a standard that other things can be compared with.
Example
Tests at the age of seven provide a benchmark against which the child's progress at school can be measured.
benefactor
A person who gives financial or other support to an individual, institution, or cause.
Example
An anonymous benefactor endowed the scholarship, enabling students from disadvantaged backgrounds to attend.
benefit
An advantage that something gives you; a helpful and useful effect that something has.
Example
Freedom of information brings great benefits.
benevolence
The quality of being well-meaning and kindly; a gift or charitable donation.
Example
The foundation's work is driven by genuine benevolence rather than the pursuit of tax advantages.
bequest
A legacy left to a person or institution in a will; something passed on to a successor.
Example
The bequest of her entire art collection to the national gallery was the defining act of her philanthropy.
bereavement
The state of loss and sorrow following the death of a loved one.
Example
Grief counselling services were made available to staff following the bereavement of a much-loved colleague.
beverage
A drink.
Example
The restaurant offers a variety of beverages.
bias
A strong feeling in favour of or against one group of people, or one side in an argument, often not based on fair judgement.
Example
accusations of political bias in news programmes (= that reports are unfair and show favour to one political party)
bicycle
A road vehicle with two wheels that you ride by pushing the pedals with your feet.
Example
He got on his bicycle and rode off.
bid
An offer by a person or a company to pay a particular amount of money for something.
Example
A German firm launched a takeover bid for the company.
bigotry
Intolerance towards those who hold different opinions or belong to different groups.
Example
The report documented persistent bigotry in hiring practices across several sectors of the economy.
bill
A document that shows how much you owe somebody for goods or services.
Example
the phone/electricity/gas bill
biology
The scientific study of the life and structure of plants and animals.
Example
a degree in biology
bird
A creature that is covered with feathers and has two wings and two legs. Most birds can fly.
Example
a bird’s nest with two eggs in it
birth
The time when a baby is born; the process of being born.
Example
at birth, The baby weighed three kilos at birth.
birthday
The day in each year which is the same date as the one on which you were born.
Example
Happy Birthday!
bishop
A senior priest in charge of the work of the Church in a city or district.
Example
the Bishop of Oxford
bit
Rather; to some extent.
Example
These trousers are a bit tight.
black
The very darkest colour, like night or coal.
Example
the black of the night sky
blade
The flat part of a knife, tool or machine, which has a sharp edge or edges for cutting.
Example
The machine comes with a plastic guard over the blade to protect the operator.
blanket
A large cover, often made of wool, used especially on beds to keep people warm.
Example
It’s cold tonight—can I have another blanket?
blasphemy
Profane or irreverent speech or action concerning something regarded as sacred.
Example
What the congregation considered blasphemy, the artist defended as legitimate critical engagement with religious imagery.
blast
An explosion or a powerful movement of air caused by an explosion.
Example
a bomb blast
blind
Not able to see.
Example
Doctors think he will go blind.
block
A large piece of a solid material that is square or rectangular in shape and usually has flat sides.
Example
The houses are made of concrete blocks with tin roofs.
blog
A website where an individual person, or people representing an organization, write regularly about recent events or topics that interest them, usually with photos and links to other websites that they find interesting.
Example
This is a link to the museum's blog.
blood
The red liquid that flows through the bodies of humans and animals.
Example
He lost a lot of blood in the accident.
blue
The colour of a clear sky or the sea on a clear day.
Example
bright/dark/light/pale/deep blue
boat
A vehicle (smaller than a ship) that travels on water, moved by oars, sails or a motor.
Example
a rowing/sailing boat
body
The whole physical structure of a human or an animal.
Example
The human body is a complex structure.
bomb
A weapon designed to explode at a particular time or when it is dropped or thrown.
Example
a bomb goes off/explodes
bond
Something that forms a connection between people or groups, such as a feeling of friendship or shared ideas and experiences.
Example
the bond that links us
bone
Any of the hard parts that form the skeleton of the body of a human or an animal.
Example
He survived the accident with no broken bones.
bonus
An extra amount of money that is added to a payment, especially to somebody’s wages or salary as a reward.
Example
a £100 Christmas bonus
booking
An arrangement that you make in advance to buy a ticket to travel somewhere, go to the theatre, etc.
Example
a booking form/hall/clerk
boom
A sudden increase in trade and economic activity; a period of wealth and success.
Example
Living standards improved rapidly during the post-war boom.
boon
A thing that is helpful, beneficial, or timely; a blessing.
Example
Reliable broadband connectivity proved an enormous boon to rural businesses during the pandemic.
border
The line that divides two countries or areas; the land near this line.
Example
I live in a small town in the US, near the Canadian border.
boss
A person who is in charge of other people at work and tells them what to do.
Example
I'll ask my boss if I can have the day off.
bottle
A glass or plastic container, usually round with straight sides and a narrow neck, used especially for storing liquids.
Example
a wine/beer/milk/water bottle
bottom
The lowest part of something.
Example
the bottom of the screen/stairs/hill
bound
Certain or likely to happen, or to do or be something.
Example
There are bound to be changes when the new system is introduced.
boundary
A real or imagined line that marks the limits or edges of something and separates it from other things or places; a dividing line.
Example
After the war the national boundaries were redrawn.
bounty
Generous financial assistance; a reward paid for capturing or killing a person; an abundance of something.
Example
The autumn harvest was a bounty that exceeded even the most optimistic projections of the season.
bourgeoisie
The middle class, typically characterised by conventional values and material concerns; in Marxist theory, the capitalist class.
Example
The manifesto attacked what it termed the cultural complacency of the petit bourgeoisie.
bowl
A deep round dish with a wide open top, used especially for holding food or liquid.
Example
a salad/fruit/sugar bowl
box
A container made of wood, thick card, metal, etc. with a flat stiff base and sides and often a lid (= cover), used especially for holding solid things.
Example
in a box, Everything we owned was neatly packed in cardboard boxes.
boy
A male child or a young male person.
Example
a little/small/young boy
boyfriend
A man or boy that somebody has a romantic or sexual relationship with.
Example
She's got a new boyfriend.
brain
The organ inside the head that controls movement, thought, memory and feeling.
Example
The human brain is a complex organ.
branch
A part of a tree that grows out from the main stem and on which leaves, flowers and fruit grow.
Example
She climbed the tree and hid in the branches.
brand
A type of product, service, etc. made or offered by a particular company under a particular name.
Example
a well-known brand of toothpaste
bravado
A bold or boastful manner intended to impress or intimidate, often concealing anxiety or insecurity.
Example
His apparent bravado in the press conference masked deep uncertainty about the organisation's direction.
brave
Willing to do things that are difficult, dangerous or painful; not afraid.
Example
brave men and women
bravura
Great technical skill and brilliance shown in a performance or activity.
Example
The pianist's bravura in the final movement brought the audience to its feet.
breach
A failure to do something that must be done by law.
Example
a breach of contract/copyright/warranty
bread
A type of food made from flour, water and usually yeast mixed together and baked.
Example
a loaf/slice/piece of bread
break
A short period of time when you stop what you are doing and rest, eat, etc.
Example
She was on her lunch break.
breakdown
An occasion when a vehicle or machine stops working.
Example
a breakdown on the motorway
breakfast
The first meal of the day.
Example
They were having breakfast when I arrived.
breakthrough
An important development that may lead to an agreement or achievement.
Example
to make/achieve a breakthrough
breath
The air that you take into your lungs and send out again.
Example
His breath smelt of garlic.
breathing
The action of taking air into the lungs and sending it out again.
Example
Her breathing became steady and she fell asleep.
brevity
Concise and exact use of words; shortness of time.
Example
The report's brevity was one of its greatest strengths; every sentence earned its place.
brick
Baked clay used for building walls, houses and other buildings; an individual block of this.
Example
The school is built of brick.
bride
A woman on her wedding day, or just before or just after it.
Example
a toast to the bride and groom
bridge
A structure that is built over a road, railway, river, etc. so that people, vehicles, etc. can cross from one side to the other.
Example
We crossed the bridge over the River Windrush.
brinkmanship
The art or practice of pursuing a dangerous course of action to the limits of safety before stopping, especially in politics.
Example
The standoff was widely criticised as reckless brinkmanship that brought two nuclear powers dangerously close to conflict.
broadband
A way of connecting to the internet that allows you to receive information, including pictures, etc., very quickly and that is always active (so that the user does not have to connect each time).
Example
plans to provide rural areas with fast broadband
broadcaster
A person whose job is presenting or talking on television or radio programmes.
Example
She is a writer and broadcaster on environmental matters.
brother
A boy or man who has the same parents as another person.
Example
We're brothers.
brown
The colour of earth or coffee.
Example
leaves of various shades of brown
browser
A computer program that lets you look at or read documents on the World Wide Web.
Example
What do you use as your default browser?
bubble
A ball of air or gas in a liquid, or a ball of air inside a solid substance such as glass.
Example
champagne bubbles
budget
The money that is available to a person or an organization and a plan of how it will be spent over a period of time.
Example
an annual budget of £10 million
buffer
A thing or person that reduces a shock or protects somebody/something against difficulties.
Example
Support from family and friends acts as a buffer against stress.
builder
A person whose job is to construct or repair houses.
Example
We hired a builder to renovate the kitchen.
bulk
The main part of something; most of something.
Example
The bulk of the population lives in cities.
bullet
A small metal object that is fired from a gun.
Example
He was found to have a single bullet wound in his chest.
bulwark
A defensive wall; a person or principle serving as a defence against something undesirable.
Example
An independent judiciary is one of the most important bulwarks against executive overreach in a democracy.
bunch
A number of things of the same type which are growing or fastened together.
Example
a bunch of bananas, grapes, etc.
burden
A duty, responsibility, etc. that causes worry, difficulty or hard work.
Example
to bear/carry/ease/reduce/share the burden
bureaucracy
The system of official rules and ways of doing things that a government or an organization has, especially when these seem to be too complicated.
Example
unnecessary/excessive bureaucracy
burial
The act or ceremony of burying a dead body.
Example
a burial place/mound/site
burn
An injury or a mark caused by fire, heat or acid.
Example
to have minor/severe/third-degree burns
burst
A sudden brief outbreak or display of something, such as activity, sound, or feeling.
Example
There was a sudden burst of laughter from the next room.
bus
A large road vehicle that carries passengers, especially one that travels along a fixed route and stops regularly to let people get on and off.
Example
by bus, Shall we walk or go by bus?
business
The activity of making, buying, selling or supplying goods or services for money.
Example
It's been a pleasure to do business with you.
businessman
A man who works in business, especially at a high level.
Example
a group of visiting Italian politicians and businessmen
butter
A soft yellow food made from cream, used in cooking and for spreading on bread.
Example
Fry the onions in butter.
button
A small round piece of metal, plastic, etc. that is sewn onto a piece of clothing and used for fastening two parts together.
Example
(British English), to do up/undo your buttons
byword
A person or thing cited as a notable and outstanding example of something; a proverb or common saying.
Example
The institution had become a byword for excellence in surgical training throughout the region.
cabal
A secret group of plotters or political conspirators.
Example
Opponents alleged that policy was being driven by a cabal operating entirely outside democratic scrutiny.
cabin
A small room on a ship in which you live or sleep.
Example
I lay in my cabin feeling miserably seasick.
cabinet
A group of senior members of a government that is responsible for advising and deciding on government policy.
Example
a cabinet meeting
cable
A set of wires, covered in plastic or rubber, that carries electricity, phone signals, etc.
Example
fibre-optic cable
cache
A hidden store of things; a temporary computer memory store for rapid access.
Example
Investigators discovered a cache of documents that directly contradicted the company's public statements.
cacophony
A harsh, discordant mixture of sounds.
Example
The construction site outside produced an incessant cacophony that made concentrated work impossible.
cadence
A rhythmic sequence or flow of sounds in language or music; a modulation in the voice.
Example
The cadence of her speech in the final paragraph gave the address an almost musical quality.
cake
A sweet food made from a mixture of flour, eggs, butter, sugar, etc. that is baked in an oven. Cakes are made in various shapes and sizes and are often decorated, for example with cream or icing.
Example
a piece/slice of cake
calculation
The act or process of using numbers to find out an amount.
Example
Cathy did a rough calculation.
calibre
The quality of someone's character or the level of someone's ability; the internal diameter of a gun barrel.
Example
It is rare to find a candidate of such intellectual calibre who also possesses strong leadership qualities.
call
The act of speaking to somebody on the phone.
Example
to get/receive a call from somebody
calm
A quiet and peaceful time or situation.
Example
The police appealed for calm.
camaraderie
Mutual trust and friendship among people who spend a lot of time together.
Example
The long field expedition fostered a genuine camaraderie among the research team that outlasted the project.
camera
A piece of equipment for taking photographs, moving pictures or television pictures. It can be a separate item or part of another device.
Example
Just point the camera and press the button.
camp
A place where people live temporarily in tents or temporary buildings.
Example
Let's return to camp.
campaign
A series of planned activities that are intended to achieve a particular social, commercial or political aim.
Example
an anti-smoking campaign
camping
Living in a tent, etc. on holiday.
Example
Do you go camping?
campus
The buildings of a university or college and the land around them.
Example
university/college campuses
canal
A long straight passage dug in the ground and filled with water for boats and ships to travel along; a smaller passage used for carrying water to fields, crops, etc.
Example
the Panama/Suez Canal
cancer
A serious disease in which growths of cells, also called cancers, form in the body and kill normal body cells. The disease often causes death.
Example
breast/lung cancer
candidate
A person who is trying to be elected or is applying for a job.
Example
a presidential candidate
candle
A round stick of wax with a piece of string (called a wick) through the middle that is lit to give light as it burns.
Example
a flickering candle
candour
The quality of being open and honest in expression; frankness.
Example
She appreciated his candour in acknowledging the limits of what the evidence actually supported.
candy
Sweets; confectionery.
Example
Children love eating candy.
canvas
A strong heavy rough material used for making tents, sails, etc. and by artists for painting on.
Example
tents made from heavy canvas
cap
A type of soft flat hat with a peak (= a hard curved part sticking out in front). Caps are worn especially by men and boys, often as part of a uniform.
Example
to wear a cap.
capability
The ability or qualities necessary to do something.
Example
Age affects the range of a person's capabilities.
capacity
The number of things or people that a container or space can hold.
Example
a fuel tank with a maximum capacity of 50 litres
capital
The most important town or city of a country or region, where the government operates from.
Example
Cairo is the capital of Egypt.
capitalist
Based on the principles of capitalism.
Example
a capitalist society/system/economy
captain
The person in charge of a ship or commercial aircraft.
Example
Captain Cook
capture
The act of capturing somebody/something or of being captured.
Example
He evaded capture for three days.
car
A road vehicle with an engine and four wheels that can carry a small number of passengers.
Example
Paula got into the car and drove off.
carbon
A chemical element. Carbon is found in all living things, existing in a pure state as diamond and graphite.
Example
carbon fibre
career
The series of jobs that a person has in a particular area of work, usually involving more responsibility as time passes.
Example
a teaching career
careless
Not giving enough attention and thought to what you are doing, so that you make mistakes.
Example
careless driving
cargo
The goods carried in a ship, an aircraft or a motor vehicle.
Example
The tanker began to spill its cargo of oil.
carpet
A piece of thick woven material made of wool, etc., used to cover the floor of a room or stairs; the material used for carpets.
Example
He spent the morning laying the new carpet.
carriage
A separate section of a train for carrying passengers.
Example
a railway carriage
carrot
A long pointed orange root vegetable.
Example
grated carrot
cartography
The science and practice of drawing and making maps.
Example
Advances in satellite imaging have transformed cartography into a highly precise digital discipline.
cartoon
A humorous drawing in a newspaper or magazine, especially one about politics or events in the news.
Example
a political/satirical cartoon
case
A particular situation or a situation of a particular type.
Example
in… cases, In some cases people have had to wait several weeks for an appointment.
cash
Money in the form of coins or notes.
Example
How much cash do you have on you?
casino
A public building or room where people play gambling games for money.
Example
a new hotel and casino in Las Vegas
cast
All the people who act in a play or film.
Example
an all-star cast (= including many well-known actors)
caste
A hereditary class or social stratum distinguished by relative degrees of status, rank, or privilege.
Example
Despite legal abolition, the caste system continues to structure social relations in many parts of the region.
castle
A large strong building with thick, high walls and towers, built in the past by kings or queens, or other important people, to defend themselves against attack.
Example
a medieval castle
casualty
A person who is killed or injured in war or in an accident.
Example
Our primary objective is reducing road casualties.
cat
A small animal with soft fur that people often keep as a pet. Cats catch and kill birds and mice.
Example
a tin of cat food
cataclysm
A large-scale violent event resulting in sudden, great destruction or upheaval.
Example
The financial cataclysm of 2008 exposed fundamental fragilities in the global banking architecture.
catalog
A complete list of items, typically arranged systematically.
Example
The library has an online catalog.
category
A group of people or things with particular features in common.
Example
These are the nominees from each category.
catharsis
The process of releasing strong or repressed emotions through art, drama, or psychotherapy.
Example
Writing the memoir proved an unexpected catharsis, releasing grief she had carried for twenty years.
cattle
Cows and bulls that are kept as farm animals for their milk or meat.
Example
a herd of cattle
cause
The person or thing that makes something happen.
Example
Unemployment is a major cause of poverty.
caution
Care that you take in order to avoid danger or mistakes; the fact of not taking any risks.
Example
extreme/great caution
cavalcade
A formal procession of vehicles or riders; a succession of dramatic events.
Example
A cavalcade of armoured vehicles accompanied the head of state through the city centre.
cave
A large hole in the side of a hill or cliff or under the ground.
Example
the mouth (= the entrance) of the cave
caveat
A warning or qualification attached to a statement, recommendation, or agreement.
Example
The endorsement came with an important caveat: the technology was only proven effective under controlled conditions.
CD
A small disc on which sound or information is recorded. CDs can be played or read on various types of machines, including CD players and computers. (the abbreviation for ‘compact disc’).
Example
on CD, His albums are available on CD and online.
ceiling
The top inside surface of a room.
Example
a large room with a high ceiling
celebration
A special event that people organize in order to celebrate something.
Example
The occasion was the 40th anniversary celebrations of the orchestra.
celebrity
A famous person.
Example
a celebrity chef
cell
The smallest unit of living matter that can exist on its own. All plants and animals are made up of cells.
Example
red and white blood cells
cemetery
An area of land used for burying dead people, especially one that is not next to a church.
Example
He was buried in a private cemetery.
censure
The formal expression of severe disapproval or criticism, especially by an official body.
Example
The committee voted to issue a formal censure following the minister's misleading testimony.
cent
A coin and unit of money worth 1% of the main unit of money in many countries, for example of the US dollar or of the euro.
Example
A one-minute phone call to the UK cost 10 cents.
center
The middle point or part of something.
Example
The shopping center is very busy today.
central
In the centre of an area or object.
Example
central London
century
A period of 100 years.
Example
A century ago, Valparaiso was the country's main port.
ceremony
A public or religious occasion that includes a series of formal or traditional actions.
Example
More than 1 000 people attended the ceremony.
certainty
The state of being certain.
Example
There is no certainty that the president's removal would end the civil war.
certificate
An official document that may be used to prove that the facts it states are true.
Example
a birth/marriage/death certificate
cessation
The fact or process of ending or being brought to an end.
Example
Both parties agreed to an immediate cessation of hostilities pending the outcome of the mediation.
chagrin
Distress or embarrassment caused by failure or humiliation.
Example
To his considerable chagrin, the error was discovered by a junior colleague rather than by himself.
chain
A series of connected metal rings, used for pulling or fastening things; a length of chain used for a particular purpose.
Example
She wore a heavy gold chain around her neck.
chair
A piece of furniture for one person to sit on, with a back, a seat and four legs.
Example
a table and chairs
chairman
The person in charge of a meeting, who tells people when they can speak, etc.
Example
Sir Herbert took it upon himself to act as chairman.
chamber
A hall in a public building that is used for formal meetings.
Example
The members left the council chamber.
champion
A person, team, etc. that has won a competition, especially in a sport.
Example
the world/European/national/Olympic champion
championship
A competition to find the best player or team in a particular sport.
Example
the National Basketball Association Championship
chance
A possibility of something happening, especially something that you want.
Example
She only has a slim chance of passing the exam.
change
The act or result of something becoming different.
Example
We're hoping for a change in the weather.
channel
A television station.
Example
a television/TV channel
chaos
A complete lack of order.
Example
economic/political/domestic chaos
chapter
A separate section of a book, usually with a number or title.
Example
to read/write a chapter
character
A person or an animal in a book, play or film.
Example
the main character in the film
characteristic
A typical feature or quality that something/somebody has.
Example
There were few similarities in the brothers' physical characteristics.
charge
The amount of money that somebody asks for goods and services.
Example
admission charges
charity
An organization for helping people in need.
Example
a registered charity
charlatan
A person falsely claiming expertise or special knowledge in order to deceive others.
Example
The regulator moved to prosecute the charlatan who had been selling unproven cures to vulnerable patients.
charm
The power of pleasing or attracting people.
Example
He was a man of great charm.
chart
A diagram, lists of figures, etc. that shows information.
Example
Some shares have lost two-thirds of their value since being issued (see chart).
chase
An act of running or driving after somebody/something in order to catch them or it.
Example
The thieves were caught by police after a short chase.
chasm
A deep fissure in the earth's surface; a profound difference between two people, viewpoints, or groups.
Example
The debate laid bare the chasm between the government's stated priorities and its actual spending patterns.
chattel
Personal movable property; historically, a person held as property or treated as an object.
Example
The legal system that once defined enslaved people as chattel left a legacy still felt in social structures today.
check
An act of making sure that something is safe, correct or in good condition by examining it.
Example
Could you give the tyres a check?
cheek
Either side of the face below the eyes.
Example
chubby/rosy/pink cheeks
cheer
A shout of joy, support or praise.
Example
A great cheer went up from the crowd.
cheese
A type of food made from milk that can be either soft or hard and is usually white or yellow in colour; a particular type of this food.
Example
Cheddar cheese
chef
A person whose job is to cook, especially the most senior person in a restaurant, hotel, etc.
Example
a new book by celebrity chef Jamie Oliver
chemical
A substance obtained by or used in a chemical process.
Example
toxic chemicals
chemistry
The scientific study of the structure of substances, how they react when combined or in contact with one another, and how they behave under different conditions.
Example
a degree in chemistry
chicanery
The use of deceptive tricks or elaborate manoeuvres, especially in legal or political contexts.
Example
The auditors uncovered years of financial chicanery that had disguised the true state of the company's accounts.
chief
A person with a high rank or the highest rank in a company or an organization.
Example
army/police chiefs
child
A young human who is not yet an adult.
Example
a child of 3/a 3-year-old child
childhood
The period of somebody’s life when they are a child.
Example
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
chocolate
A hard brown sweet food made from cocoa beans, used in cooking to add taste to cakes, etc. or eaten as a sweet.
Example
a chocolate bar
choice
An act of choosing between two or more possibilities; something that you can choose.
Example
We are faced with a difficult choice.
choir
A group of people who sing together, for example in church services or public performances.
Example
She sings in the school choir.
chronology
The arrangement of events or dates in the order of their occurrence; a table or list of this.
Example
Establishing a precise chronology of the communications was essential to the prosecution's case.
chunk
A thick, solid piece that has been cut or broken off something.
Example
a chunk of cheese/masonry
church
A building where Christians go to attend services, pray, etc.
Example
The procession moved into the church.
cigarette
A thin tube of paper filled with tobacco, for smoking.
Example
to smoke/have a cigarette
circle
A completely round flat shape.
Example
the centre/circumference/radius/diameter of a circle
circuit
A line, route or journey around a place.
Example
The race ended with eight laps of a city centre circuit.
circulation
The movement of blood around the body.
Example
Regular exercise will improve blood circulation.
circumstance
The conditions and facts that are connected with and affect a situation, an event or an action.
Example
Police said there were no suspicious circumstances surrounding the boy's death.
citadel
A fortress protecting or dominating a city; a place of safety or refuge.
Example
The ancient citadel overlooking the old quarter remains the city's most recognisable landmark.
citizen
A person who has the legal right to belong to a particular country.
Example
The defeat of the president did not change the lives of ordinary citizens for the better.
citizenship
The legal right to belong to a particular country.
Example
They were granted full French citizenship.
city
A large and important town.
Example
Parking is difficult in the city centre.
civilian
A person who is not a member of the armed forces or the police.
Example
Two soldiers and one civilian were killed in the explosion.
civilization
A state of human society that is very developed and organized.
Example
the technology of modern civilization
claim
A statement that something is true although it has not been proved and other people may not agree with or believe it.
Example
The company had made false claims about its products.
clarity
The quality of being expressed clearly.
Example
a lack of clarity in the law
class
A group of students who are taught together.
Example
in the/your class, We were in the same class at school.
classification
The act or process of putting people or things into a group or class (= of classifying them).
Example
a style of music that defies classification (= is like no other)
classroom
A room where a class of children or students is taught.
Example
classroom activities
clemency
Mercy and leniency shown towards those who could justifiably be treated more harshly.
Example
The judge exercised clemency in sentencing, citing the defendant's genuine remorse and cooperation.
clerk
A person whose job is to serve customers in a shop.
Example
The clerk at the counter gave me too little change.
cliff
A high area of rock with a very steep side, often at the edge of the sea or ocean.
Example
the cliff edge/top
climate
The regular pattern of weather conditions of a particular place.
Example
a tropical/warm/mild/temperate/cold climate
clinic
A building or part of a hospital where people can go for special medical treatment or advice.
Example
Your local family planning clinic can give you advice about birth control.
clip
A short part of a film that is shown separately.
Example
Here is a clip from her latest movie.
clique
A small, exclusive group of people who share common interests and socialise closely, excluding others.
Example
The department had fragmented into competing cliques, making collective decision-making almost impossible.
cloister
A covered walkway in a convent, monastery, or cathedral; a place of seclusion from the outside world.
Example
She retreated to a scholarly cloister that kept her insulated from the political turmoil beyond the campus.
closet
A tall cupboard or wardrobe with a door, used for storage.
Example
Hang your coat in the closet.
cloth
Material made by weaving or knitting cotton, wool, silk, etc.
Example
woollen/cotton/linen cloth
clothes
The things that you wear, such as trousers, dresses and jackets.
Example
I bought some new clothes for the trip.
clothing
Clothes, especially a particular type of clothes.
Example
Workers at the factory wear protective clothing.
clout
Influence or power, especially in political or social spheres.
Example
The lobby group had sufficient clout to block the proposed reforms through sustained parliamentary pressure.
club
An organization for people who share an interest or do a sport or activity together.
Example
a golf/tennis/chess/film club
clue
An object, a piece of evidence or some information that helps the police solve a crime.
Example
The burglar left no clues.
cluster
A group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together.
Example
The telescope is focused on a dense cluster of stars at the edge of the galaxy.
coach
A person who trains a person or team in sport.
Example
the head/assistant coach
coal
A hard black mineral that is found below the ground and burnt to produce heat.
Example
I put more coal on the fire.
coalition
A government formed by two or more political parties working together.
Example
The two parties have formed a coalition.
coast
The land next to or near to the sea or ocean.
Example
a trip to the coast
cocktail
A drink usually made from a mixture of one or more spirits (= strong alcoholic drinks) and fruit juice. It can also be made without alcohol.
Example
a cocktail bar/cabinet/lounge/shaker
code
A system of words, letters, numbers or symbols that represent a message or record information secretly or in a shorter form.
Example
to break/crack a code (= to understand and read the message)
coercion
The practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats.
Example
The confession was subsequently ruled inadmissible on the grounds that it had been obtained through coercion.
coffee
The roasted seeds (called coffee beans) of a tropical bush; a powder made from them.
Example
ground/real/instant coffee
cohesion
The action or fact of forming a unified whole; the unity of a group or community.
Example
Social cohesion within the neighbourhood had been damaged by years of inadequate investment and neglect.
coin
A small flat piece of metal used as money.
Example
gold coins
coincidence
The fact of two things happening at the same time by chance, in a surprising way.
Example
a strange/an extraordinary/a remarkable coincidence
collaboration
The act of working with another person or group of people to create or produce something.
Example
It was a collaboration that produced extremely useful results.
collapse
A sudden failure of something, such as an institution, a business or a course of action.
Example
the collapse of the Soviet Union
colleague
A person that you work with, especially in a profession or a business.
Example
work/senior/male colleagues
collection
A group of objects, often of the same sort, that have been collected.
Example
He wanted to share his vast art collection with the world.
collector
A person who collects things, either as a hobby or as a job.
Example
a stamp collector
college
(in the UK) a place where students go to study or to receive training after they have left school.
Example
a secretarial college
collision
An accident in which two vehicles or people crash into each other.
Example
collision between A and B, a collision between two trains
collusion
Secret or illegal cooperation, especially in order to deceive or defraud.
Example
Investigators found evidence of collusion between the two firms to fix prices and eliminate competition.
colony
A country or an area that is governed by people from another, more powerful, country.
Example
former British colonies
color
The property of producing different sensations on the eye as a result of reflected or emitted light.
Example
What is your favorite color?
colossus
A statue of enormous size; a person or thing of immense power, importance, or ability.
Example
In the field of twentieth-century philosophy, he stands as an intellectual colossus without equal.
column
One of the straight sections from top to bottom into which text on a page or screen is divided.
Example
a dictionary with two columns per page
combination
Two or more things joined or mixed together to form a single unit.
Example
The tragedy was due to a combination of factors.
combine
A large machine used on farms to harvest grain crops; or a group of businesses that work together.
Example
The combine moved slowly across the wheat field at harvest time.
comic
A magazine, usually for children, that tells stories through pictures.
Example
a comic book superhero
command
An order given to a person or an animal.
Example
Begin when I give the command.
commander
A person who is in charge of something, especially an officer in charge of a particular group of soldiers or a military operation.
Example
military/allied/field/flight commanders
comment
Something that you say or write that gives an opinion on or explains somebody/something.
Example
She made helpful comments on my work.
commentary
A spoken description of an event that is given while it is happening, especially on the radio or television.
Example
a sports commentary
commentator
A person who describes an event while it is happening, especially on television or radio.
Example
a television/sports commentator
commerce
Trade, especially between countries; the buying and selling of goods and services.
Example
Leaders of industry and commerce met at the summit in Paris.
commercial
An advertisement on television, on the radio or on a website.
Example
a TV/television commercial
commission
An official group of people who have been given responsibility to control something, or to find out about something, usually for the government.
Example
The commission is expected to report its findings next month.
commissioner
A member of a commission (= an official group of people who are responsible for controlling something or finding out about something).
Example
the Church Commissioners (= the group of people responsible for controlling the financial affairs of the Church of England)
commitment
A promise to do something or to behave in a particular way; a promise to support somebody/something; the fact of committing yourself.
Example
I'm not ready to make a long-term commitment.
committee
A group of people who are chosen, usually by a larger group, to make decisions or to deal with a particular subject.
Example
an executive/advisory/organizing committee
commodity
A product or a raw material that can be bought and sold.
Example
rice, flour and other basic commodities
communication
The activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information.
Example
communication between A and B, Good communication between team leaders and members is essential.
communist
Connected with communism.
Example
communist ideology
community
All the people who live in a particular area, country, etc. when talked about as a group.
Example
The local community supported us from the start.
companion
A person or an animal that travels with you or spends a lot of time with you.
Example
travelling companions
company
A business organization that makes money by producing or selling goods or services.
Example
insurance/oil/tech/technology/pharmaceutical companies
comparative
Measured or judged by how similar or different it is to something else.
Example
Then he was living in comparative comfort (= compared with others or with his own life at a previous time).
comparison
The process of comparing two or more people or things.
Example
For Durkheim, comparison was the most important method of analysis in sociology.
compassion
A strong feeling of sympathy for people or animals who are suffering and a desire to help them.
Example
to feel/show compassion
compatriot
A fellow citizen or national of one's own country.
Example
She was cheered on by thousands of compatriots who had travelled to support the national team.
compensation
Something, especially money, that somebody gives you because they have hurt you, or damaged something that you own; the act of giving this to somebody.
Example
to claim/award/receive compensation
competence
The ability to do something well.
Example
to gain a high level of competence in English
competition
An event in which people compete with each other to find out who is the best at something.
Example
a design/an art/a talent competition
competitor
A person who takes part in a competition.
Example
Over 200 competitors entered the race.
complacency
A feeling of smug or uncritical satisfaction with oneself or one's achievements, especially when there is risk of danger.
Example
The repeated near-misses were warning signs that complacency had taken hold at the highest levels of management.
complaint
A reason for not being satisfied; a statement that somebody makes saying that they are not satisfied.
Example
a formal complaint
complement
A thing that completes or goes well with something else, often by providing a contrast or pair.
Example
A crisp white wine is the perfect complement to seafood.
complex
A group of buildings of a similar type together in one place.
Example
a sports/leisure/shopping complex
complexity
The state of being formed of many parts; the state of being difficult to understand.
Example
the increasing complexity of modern telecommunication systems
compliance
The practice of obeying rules or requests made by people in authority.
Example
procedures that must be followed to ensure full compliance with the law
complication
A thing that makes a situation more complicated or difficult.
Example
The bad weather added a further complication to our journey.
complicity
The state of being involved with others in an illegal, immoral, or harmful act.
Example
Several officials were found guilty of complicity in a scheme to misappropriate public funds.
component
One of several parts of which something is made.
Example
the different organizations involved in the design of the various components
composer
A person who writes music, especially classical music.
Example
Verdi was a prolific composer of operas.
composition
The different parts that something is made of; the way in which the different parts are organized.
Example
the chemical composition of the soil
compromise
An agreement made between two people or groups in which each side gives up some of the things they want so that both sides are happy at the end.
Example
After lengthy talks the two sides finally reached a compromise.
compulsion
The action or state of being forced to do something; an irresistible urge to behave in a certain way.
Example
He felt a compulsion to verify every fact he cited, even in casual conversation.
computer
An electronic machine that can store, organize and find information, do processes with numbers and other data, and control other machines.
Example
a home computer
concatenation
A series of linked things or events; the action of linking things together in a chain.
Example
The disaster resulted from a concatenation of small failures that individually would have been manageable.
concentrate
A substance made stronger by removing water or other liquid, often diluted before use.
Example
Add water to the orange juice concentrate before drinking.
concept
An idea or a principle that is connected with something abstract.
Example
the concept of social class
conception
An understanding or a belief of what something/somebody is or what something/somebody should be.
Example
Marx’s conception of social justice
concern
A feeling of worry, especially one that is shared by many people.
Example
Villagers expressed concern about the level of traffic.
concert
A public performance of music.
Example
to attend/go to a concert
concession
Something that you allow or do, or allow somebody to have, in order to end an argument or to make a situation less difficult.
Example
The firm will be forced to make concessions if it wants to avoid a strike.
conclave
A private or secret meeting; specifically, the assembly of cardinals meeting to elect a new pope.
Example
The faction gathered in a private conclave to decide its position before the full committee vote.
conclusion
Something that you decide when you have thought about all the information connected with the situation.
Example
We can safely draw some conclusions from our discussion.
concordance
Agreement or consistency between things; an alphabetical index of principal words in a text.
Example
There was striking concordance between the findings of the two independent research teams.
concrete
Building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water.
Example
a slab of concrete
condescension
Behaviour that implies one regards others as inferior; patronising manner.
Example
Her explanation was delivered with a condescension that the audience found more insulting than informative.
condition
The state that something is in.
Example
in… condition, to be in pristine/excellent/perfect condition
conduct
A person’s behaviour in a particular place or in a particular situation.
Example
The sport has a strict code of conduct.
conference
A large official meeting, usually lasting for a few days, at which people with the same work or interests come together to discuss their views.
Example
The hotel is used for exhibitions, conferences and social events.
confession
A statement that a person makes, admitting that they are guilty of a crime; the act of making such a statement.
Example
After hours of questioning by police, she made a full confession.
confirmation
A statement, letter, etc. that shows that something is true, correct or definite.
Example
I'm still waiting for confirmation of the test results.
conflagration
A very large and destructive fire; an extensive conflict or war.
Example
What began as a minor border dispute escalated rapidly into a full regional conflagration.
conflict
A situation in which people, groups or countries disagree strongly or are involved in a serious argument.
Example
The violence was the result of political conflicts.
confluence
The junction of two rivers; the coming together of people or things.
Example
The city grew prosperous at the confluence of trade routes connecting three major economic regions.
confrontation
A situation in which there is anger between people or groups who disagree because they have different opinions.
Example
She wanted to avoid another confrontation with her father.
congregation
A group of people who are gathered together in a church for a religious service, not including the priest and choir.
Example
The congregation stood to sing the hymn.
conjecture
An opinion or conclusion formed on the basis of incomplete information; a guess.
Example
In the absence of direct evidence, the historian's argument rested on carefully reasoned conjecture.
connection
Something that connects two facts, ideas, etc.
Example
connection between A and B, Scientists have established a connection between cholesterol levels and heart disease.
connoisseur
An expert judge in matters of taste; a person with great knowledge and appreciation of a particular subject.
Example
A connoisseur of early cinema, she could identify the director of any Hollywood film from the 1930s by its visual style.
connotation
An idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal meaning.
Example
The word "rustic" carries positive connotations of simplicity and authenticity for some, negative ones of backwardness for others.
conquest
The act of overcoming and taking control of a place or people by military force; the mastering of a skill or challenge.
Example
The cultural legacy of the conquest persisted long after the occupying power withdrew from the territory.
consecration
The action of making or declaring something, especially a building, sacred; ordination to a sacred office.
Example
The consecration of the new cathedral drew pilgrims from across the entire diocese.
consensus
An opinion that all members of a group agree with.
Example
She is skilled at achieving consensus on sensitive issues.
consent
Permission to do something, especially given by somebody in authority.
Example
The written consent of a parent is required.
consequence
A result of something that has happened, especially an unpleasant result.
Example
Remember that actions have consequences.
conservation
The protection of the natural environment.
Example
to be interested in wildlife conservation
conservative
A conservative person.
Example
social/religious conservatives
considerable
Great in amount, size, importance, etc.
Example
The project wasted a considerable amount of time and money.
consideration
The act of thinking carefully about something.
Example
An employer is legally bound to give due consideration to the request.
consistency
The quality of always behaving in the same way or of having the same opinions, standard, etc.; the quality of being consistent.
Example
She has played with great consistency all season.
consortium
An association of several companies or organisations with a shared objective.
Example
A consortium of European universities was formed to develop the joint doctoral programme.
conspiracy
A secret plan by a group of people to do something harmful or illegal.
Example
a conspiracy to overthrow the government
constant
Happening all the time or repeatedly.
Example
There were constant interruptions.
consternation
A feeling of anxiety or dismay, typically at something unexpected.
Example
The sudden resignation of the chief executive caused consternation among investors and staff alike.
constraint
A thing that limits something, or limits your freedom to do something.
Example
constraints of time/money/space
construction
The process or method of building or making something, especially roads, buildings, bridges, etc.
Example
Construction began this year and will take approximately 18 months.
consultant
A person who knows a lot about a particular subject and is employed to give advice about it to other people.
Example
a technology/design consultant
consultation
The act of discussing something with somebody or with a group of people before making a decision about it.
Example
a consultation document/paper/period/process
consumer
A person who buys goods or uses services.
Example
consumer spending/demand
consummation
The completion or fulfilment of something; the point at which something is brought to its highest degree of achievement.
Example
The signing of the peace accord was seen as the consummation of years of painstaking diplomatic effort.
consumption
The act of using energy, food or materials; the amount used.
Example
the production of fuel for domestic consumption (= to be used in the country where it is produced)
contact
The act of communicating with somebody, especially regularly.
Example
I don't have much contact with my uncle.
contagion
The communication of disease by direct or indirect contact; the spreading of harmful ideas or emotions.
Example
Financial contagion spread rapidly from the failing bank to otherwise healthy institutions across the sector.
container
A box, bottle, etc. in which something can be stored or transported.
Example
a plastic container
contemporary
Belonging to the same time.
Example
We have no contemporary account of the battle (= written near the time that it happened).
contempt
The feeling that somebody/something is without value and deserves no respect at all.
Example
with contempt, She looked at him with contempt.
contender
A person or team with a chance of winning a competition.
Example
a contender for a gold medal in the Olympics
content
The things that are contained in something.
Example
He tipped the contents of the bag onto the table.
contention
Anger between people who disagree.
Example
One area of contention is the availability of nursery care.
contest
A competition in which people try to win something.
Example
to hold a singing/talent contest
contestant
A person who takes part in a contest or competition.
Example
The contestants lined up for the start of the race.
context
The situation in which something happens and that helps you to understand it.
Example
Such databases are being used in a wide range of contexts.
contingency
A future event or circumstance that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty; a provision for such an event.
Example
The operations plan included detailed contingency arrangements for a range of adverse scenarios.
continuum
A continuous sequence in which adjacent elements are not perceptibly different, though the extremes are quite distinct.
Example
The spectrum of political opinion forms a continuum rather than a set of sharply discrete positions.
contract
An official written agreement.
Example
All employees have a written contract of employment.
contractor
A person or company that has a contract to do work or provide goods or services for another company.
Example
a building/roofing/electrical contractor
contradiction
A lack of agreement between facts, opinions, actions, etc.
Example
contradiction (between A and B), There is a contradiction between the two sets of figures.
contrary
The opposite fact, event or situation.
Example
In the end the contrary was proved true: he was innocent and she was guilty.
contrast
A difference between two or more people or things that you can see clearly when they are compared or put close together; the fact of comparing two or more things in order to show the differences between them.
Example
The two cities make an interesting contrast.
contribution
A gift or payment that is made to a person or an organization in order to help pay for something.
Example
All contributions will be gratefully received.
contributor
A person who writes articles for a magazine, book or website, or who talks on a radio or television programme or at a meeting.
Example
a regular contributor to this magazine
contrition
The state of feeling deep remorse or guilt for a wrongdoing.
Example
Her statement to the court conveyed genuine contrition and an unequivocal acceptance of responsibility.
controversy
Public discussion and argument about something that many people strongly disagree about, think is bad, or are shocked by.
Example
to arouse/cause controversy
conundrum
A confusing and difficult problem or question that has no easy solution.
Example
How to balance economic development with environmental protection remains a central conundrum of our era.
convenience
The quality of being useful, easy or suitable for somebody.
Example
We have provided seats for the convenience of our customers.
convergence
The process of coming together or tending towards a common point or result.
Example
The convergence of digital, biological, and physical technologies is reshaping the boundaries of entire industries.
conversation
An informal talk involving a small group of people or only two; the activity of talking in this way.
Example
a phone conversation
conversion
The act or process of changing something from one form, use or system to another.
Example
Their main business is the conversion of farm buildings into family homes.
convert
A person who has changed their religion, beliefs, or opinions, especially recently.
Example
She is a recent convert to vegetarianism.
conviction
The act of finding somebody guilty of a crime in court; the fact of having been found guilty.
Example
He plans to appeal against his conviction.
cook
A person who cooks food or whose job is cooking.
Example
John is a very good cook (= he cooks well).
cooking
The process of preparing food by heating it.
Example
My husband does all the cooking.
coordination
The act of making parts of something, groups of people, etc. work together in an efficient and organized way.
Example
The aim was to improve the coordination of services.
coordinator
A person who organizes the different parts of an activity and the people involved in it so that it works well.
Example
The campaign needs an effective coordinator.
cop
A police officer.
Example
Somebody call the cops!
copper
A chemical element. Copper is a soft red-brown metal used for making electric wires, pipes and coins.
Example
a copper mine
copy
A thing that is made to be the same as something else, especially a document or a work of art.
Example
The thieves replaced the original painting with a copy.
copyright
If a person or an organization holds the copyright on a piece of writing, music, etc., they are the only people who have the legal right to publish, broadcast, perform it, etc., and other people must ask their permission to use it or any part of it.
Example
Copyright expires seventy years after the death of the author.
corner
A part of something where two or more sides, lines or edges join.
Example
the four corners of a square
cornucopia
An abundant supply of good things; a goat's horn overflowing with fruit and flowers in classical imagery.
Example
The festival market offered a cornucopia of artisanal produce from across the surrounding countryside.
corollary
A direct or natural consequence or result; a proposition that follows easily from a proved proposition.
Example
Greater autonomy for regional governments is a corollary of the federal structure proposed in the new constitution.
corporation
A large business company.
Example
multinational corporations
correction
A change that makes something more accurate than it was before.
Example
I've made a few small corrections to your report.
correlation
A connection between two things in which one thing changes as the other does.
Example
correlation between A and B, There is a direct correlation between exposure to sun and skin cancer.
correspondence
The letters, emails, etc. a person sends and receives.
Example
personal/private correspondence
correspondent
A person who reports news from a particular country or on a particular subject for a newspaper or a television or radio station.
Example
She's the BBC's political correspondent.
corridor
A long narrow passage in a building, with doors that open into rooms on either side.
Example
His room is along the corridor.
corruption
Dishonest or illegal behaviour, especially of people in authority.
Example
allegations of bribery and corruption
cortege
A solemn procession, especially at a funeral.
Example
Thousands lined the streets in silence as the funeral cortege made its way to the cathedral.
cosmology
The science of the origin and development of the universe; a particular account or theory of the universe's structure.
Example
The discovery challenged existing cosmology by suggesting the universe was expanding at an accelerating rate.
cosmos
The universe seen as a well-ordered whole; a complex and orderly system.
Example
For many ancient civilisations, the cosmos was not merely a physical reality but a moral and spiritual order.
cost
The amount of money that you need in order to buy, make or do something.
Example
the high/low cost of housing
cottage
A small house, especially in the country.
Example
a thatched cottage
cotton
A plant grown in warm countries for the soft white hairs around its seeds that are used to make cloth and thread.
Example
From the age of six she worked in the fields, picking cotton.
cough
An act or sound of coughing.
Example
She has a persistent cough.
council
A group of people who are elected to govern an area such as a city or county.
Example
a town council
councilor
A member of a council.
Example
The city councilor proposed a new law.
counseling
The provision of assistance and guidance in resolving personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties.
Example
He is seeking counseling for his anxiety.
counselor
A person trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems.
Example
The school counselor helps students with their issues.
counter
A long flat surface over which goods are sold or business is done in a shop, bank, etc.
Example
behind the counter, I asked the woman behind the counter if they had any postcards.
counterpart
A person or thing that has the same position or function as somebody/something else in a different place or situation.
Example
The Foreign Minister held talks with his Chinese counterpart.
country
An area of land that has or used to have its own government and laws.
Example
European countries
county
One of a number of areas that some countries are divided into, each with its own local government.
Example
rural counties west of the Mississippi
coup
A sudden change of government that is illegal and often violent.
Example
He seized power in a military coup in 2008.
couple
Two people or things.
Example
I saw a couple of men get out.
courage
The ability to do something dangerous, or to face pain or opposition, without showing fear.
Example
He showed great courage and determination.
course
A series of lessons or lectures on a particular subject.
Example
a French/chemistry course
court
The place where legal trials take place and where crimes, etc. are judged.
Example
the civil/criminal courts
cousin
A child of your aunt or uncle.
Example
She's my cousin.
cover
A thing that is put over or on another thing, usually to protect it or to decorate it.
Example
Brighten up your room with some colourful cushion covers.
coverage
The reporting of news and sport in the media.
Example
media/newspaper/press coverage
cow
A large animal kept on farms to produce milk or beef.
Example
to milk a cow
cowboy
(In the western US and Canada) a man, typically one on horseback, who herds and tends cattle.
Example
The movie was about cowboys in the Wild West.
crack
A line on the surface of something where it has broken but not split into separate parts.
Example
This cup has a crack in it.
crash
An accident in which a vehicle hits something, for example another vehicle, usually causing damage and often injuring or killing the passengers.
Example
a car/plane crash
cream
The thick white or pale yellow fatty liquid that rises to the top of milk, used in cooking or as a type of sauce to put on fruit, etc.
Example
We had strawberries and cream for dessert.
creation
The act or process of making something that is new, or of causing something to exist that did not exist before.
Example
Job creation needs to be the top priority.
creativity
The use of skill and imagination to produce something new or to produce art.
Example
Creativity and originality are more important than technical skill.
creator
A person who has made or invented a particular thing.
Example
Walt Disney, the creator of Mickey Mouse
creature
A living thing, real or imaginary, that can move around, such as an animal.
Example
respect for all living creatures
credit
An arrangement that you make, with a shop for example, to pay later for something you buy.
Example
to get credit
creed
A system of religious beliefs; a set of principles or guiding beliefs.
Example
The organisation's founding creed held that every individual possessed an inalienable right to education.
crevasse
A deep open crack, especially in a glacier.
Example
The expedition lost crucial equipment when a sled slipped into an unseen crevasse in the ice field.
crime
Activities that involve breaking the law.
Example
This month's figures show an increase in violent crime.
criminal
A person who commits a crime.
Example
a convicted criminal
crisis
A time of great danger, difficulty or doubt when problems must be solved or important decisions must be made.
Example
an economic/a financial crisis
criterion
A standard or principle by which something is judged, or with the help of which a decision is made.
Example
The main criterion is value for money.
critic
A person who expresses opinions about the good and bad qualities of books, music, etc.
Example
a film/an art/a music critic
critical
Saying what you think is bad about somebody/something.
Example
You should just ignore any critical comments.
criticism
The act of expressing disapproval of somebody/something and opinions about their faults or bad qualities; a statement showing this disapproval.
Example
to draw/face/receive criticism
critique
A piece of written criticism of a set of ideas, a work of art, etc.
Example
She wrote a feminist critique of Freud's theories.
crop
A plant that is grown in large quantities, especially as food.
Example
Sugar is an important crop on the island.
cross
A mark or an object formed by two lines crossing each other (X or +); the mark (X) is often used on paper to show something.
Example
I've put a cross on the map to show where the hotel is.
crowd
A large number of people gathered together in a public place, for example in the streets or at a sports game.
Example
He pushed his way through the crowd.
crown
An object in the shape of a circle, usually made of gold and precious stones, that a king or queen wears on his or her head on official occasions.
Example
The crown was placed upon the new monarch's head.
crucible
A vessel for melting substances at high temperatures; a severe test or a situation of intense trial.
Example
The civil war served as a crucible in which the nation's identity and institutions were fundamentally remade.
cruise
A journey by sea, visiting different places, especially as a holiday.
Example
I'd love to go on a round-the-world cruise.
crux
The decisive or most important point at issue.
Example
The crux of the disagreement was not the policy itself but the authority by which it had been enacted.
crypt
An underground room or vault, typically beneath a church, used as a chapel or burial place.
Example
The remains of the cathedral's founders lie in the ancient crypt beneath the nave.
crystal
A small piece of a substance with many even sides, that is formed naturally when the substance becomes solid.
Example
ice/salt crystals
cue
An action or event that is a signal for somebody to do something.
Example
Jon's arrival was a cue for more champagne.
culprit
A person or thing responsible for a fault or wrongdoing.
Example
Investigators eventually identified poor maintenance as the principal culprit in the infrastructure failure.
cult
A way of life, an attitude, an idea, etc. that has become very popular.
Example
the cult of physical fitness
culture
The customs and beliefs, art, way of life and social organization of a particular country or group.
Example
African/American/European/Islamic culture
cup
A small container that is like a bowl in shape, usually with a handle, used for drinking tea, coffee, etc.
Example
He filled the cup with water.
cupboard
A piece of furniture with doors and shelves used for storing dishes, food, clothes, etc.
Example
kitchen cupboards
cupidity
Greed for money or possessions; excessive desire for wealth.
Example
The scandal exposed the cupidity of executives who had enriched themselves at the expense of pensioners.
cure
A medicine or medical treatment that cures an illness.
Example
the search for a cure for cancer
curiosity
A strong desire to know about something.
Example
Children show curiosity about everything.
curmudgeon
A bad-tempered or surly person, especially one who is elderly.
Example
Despite his reputation as a curmudgeon, he was invariably generous to students who sought his advice.
current
The movement of water in the sea or a river; the movement of air in a particular direction.
Example
with the current, It's easier to go with the current.
curriculum
The subjects that are included in a course of study or taught in a school, college, etc.
Example
The school curriculum should be as broad as possible.
curtain
A piece of cloth that is hung to cover a window.
Example
to draw/pull/close the curtains (= to pull them across the window so they cover it)
curve
A line or surface that bends gradually; a smooth bend.
Example
He admired the delicate curve of her ear.
custody
The legal right or duty to take care of or keep somebody/something; the act of taking care of something/somebody.
Example
Who will have custody of the children?
custom
An accepted way of behaving or of doing things in a society or a community.
Example
It's a local custom.
customer
A person or an organization that buys goods or services from a shop or business.
Example
marketing strategies to target potential customers
cutting
An article or a story that you cut from a newspaper or magazine and keep.
Example
newspaper/press cuttings
cycle
A bicycle or motorcycle.
Example
He was riding his cycle home when he was hit by a lorry.
dairy
Milk, cheese and other milk products.
Example
The doctor told me to eat less red meat and dairy.
dalliance
A brief or casual romantic or sexual involvement; a period of casual engagement with an idea or activity.
Example
His youthful dalliance with radical politics gave way to a more measured centrist position in later life.
dam
A barrier that is built across a river in order to stop the water from flowing, used especially to make a reservoir (= a lake for storing water) or to produce electricity.
Example
the Narmada dam in India
damage
Physical harm caused to something which makes it less attractive, useful or valuable.
Example
serious/severe damage
dance
A series of movements and steps that are usually performed to music; a particular example of these movements and steps.
Example
Do you know any other Latin American dances?
dancer
A person who dances or whose job is dancing.
Example
She's a fantastic dancer.
dancing
Moving your body to music.
Example
There was music and dancing till two in the morning.
danger
The possibility of something happening that will injure, harm or kill somebody, or damage or destroy something.
Example
Danger! Keep Out!
dare
A challenge that asks someone to do something risky or frightening to prove their courage.
Example
He climbed the tree on a dare from his friends.
darkness
The state of being dark, without any light.
Example
After a few minutes our eyes got used to the darkness.
data
Facts or information, especially when examined and used to find out things or to make decisions.
Example
We collected publicly available data over a 10-day period.
database
An organized set of data that is stored in a computer and can be looked at and used in various ways.
Example
The database is updated monthly.
date
A particular day of the month, sometimes in a particular year, given in numbers and words.
Example
‘What's the date today?’ ‘The 10th.’
daughter
A person’s female child.
Example
We have two sons and a daughter.
dawn
The time of day when light first appears.
Example
at dawn, They start work at dawn.
day
A period of 24 hours.
Example
‘What day is it today?’ ‘Monday.’
deadline
A point in time by which something must be done.
Example
I prefer to work to a deadline.
dealer
A person whose business is buying and selling a particular product.
Example
an art/antique dealer
dearth
A scarcity or lack of something.
Example
There is a notable dearth of long-term longitudinal studies on the effects of the intervention.
death
The fact of somebody dying or being killed.
Example
the anniversary of his wife’s death
debacle
A sudden and total collapse or failure; a chaotic and humiliating disaster.
Example
The product launch debacle cost the company several hundred million in write-downs and reputational damage.
debate
A formal discussion of an issue at a public meeting or in a parliament. In a debate two or more speakers express opposite views and then there is often a vote on the issue.
Example
the first ever televised presidential debate
debris
Pieces of wood, metal, building materials, etc. that are left after something has been destroyed.
Example
Emergency teams are still clearing the debris from the plane crash.
debt
A sum of money that somebody owes.
Example
to pay/repay a debt
decade
A period of ten years, especially a continuous period, such as 1910–1919 or 2000–2009.
Example
the early decades of the nineteenth century
decadence
Moral or cultural decline, especially when characterised by excessive indulgence in pleasure or luxury.
Example
Critics of the period detected in its art a self-conscious decadence that mirrored broader societal anxieties.
December
The 12th and last month of the year.
Example
She was born in December.
decision
A choice or judgement that you make after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do.
Example
I think I've made the right decision.
declaration
An official or formal statement, especially about the plans of a government or an organization; the act of making such a statement.
Example
to issue/sign a declaration
decline
A continuous decrease in the number, value, quality, etc. of something.
Example
There has been a 5 per cent decline in student numbers.
decoration
A thing that makes something look more attractive on special occasions.
Example
Christmas/festive decorations
decorum
Behaviour in keeping with good taste, propriety, and dignity.
Example
The chair reminded members that proceedings were to be conducted with appropriate decorum.
decrease
The process of reducing something; the amount that something is reduced by.
Example
Sales for May show a decrease compared with the same month last year.
decree
An official order issued by a legal or governmental authority.
Example
The president issued a decree suspending the constitutional provisions that had protected press freedom.
dedication
The hard work and effort that somebody puts into an activity or a purpose because they think it is important.
Example
hard work and dedication
deed
A thing that somebody does that is usually very good or very bad.
Example
It's a stirring tale of heroic deeds.
defamation
The action of damaging the good reputation of someone; slander or libel.
Example
The executive launched a defamation suit against the newspaper over what he described as fabricated allegations.
default
What happens or appears if you do not make any other choice or change, especially in a computer program.
Example
The default is fifty lines.
defeat
Failure to win or to be successful.
Example
The party faces defeat in the election.
defect
A fault in something or in the way it has been made that means that it is not perfect.
Example
a defect in the glass
defender
A player who must stop the other team from scoring in games such as football (soccer), hockey, etc.
Example
a passionate defender of human rights
deference
Humble submission and respect towards another; polite compliance with someone's wishes.
Example
Junior researchers were expected to show deference to senior colleagues, sometimes at the cost of honest scientific debate.
deficiency
The state of not having, or not having enough of, something that is essential.
Example
Vitamin deficiency in the diet can cause illness.
deficit
The amount by which money spent or owed is greater than money earned in a particular period of time.
Example
a budget/trade deficit
definite
Sure or certain; unlikely to change.
Example
Can you give me a definite answer by tomorrow?
degree
A unit for measuring temperature.
Example
at… degrees, Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (32°F) or zero/nought degrees Celsius (0°C).
deity
A god or goddess; the quality or state of being divine.
Example
The temple was consecrated to a deity associated with the harvest and the fertility of the land.
delay
A period of time when somebody/something has to wait because of a problem that makes something slow or late.
Example
Commuters will face long delays on the roads today.
delegation
A group of people who represent the views of an organization, a country, etc.
Example
the Dutch delegation to the United Nations
deliberation
Long and careful consideration or discussion; slow and careful movement or action.
Example
After weeks of deliberation, the tribunal delivered a comprehensive judgment running to several hundred pages.
delineation
The action of describing, portraying, or marking the boundary of something precisely.
Example
The treaty provided a clear delineation of each party's rights and obligations under the arrangement.
delirium
An acutely disturbed state of mind characterised by confusion, excitement, and hallucination; wild excitement or ecstasy.
Example
The crowd was in a state of collective delirium as the team completed its improbable comeback victory.
deliverance
The act of being rescued or saved from danger, evil, or difficulty.
Example
For those trapped by the conflict, the arrival of peacekeeping forces represented a moment of deliverance.
delivery
The act of taking goods, letters, etc. to the people they have been sent to.
Example
Allow 28 days for delivery.
deluge
A severe flood or heavy rainfall; an overwhelming quantity of something.
Example
Following the announcement, the office was inundated by a deluge of inquiries from concerned stakeholders.
demagogue
A political leader who seeks power by appealing to popular emotions and prejudices rather than reasoned argument.
Example
Historians debate whether the leader was a principled reformer or simply a gifted demagogue who exploited social divisions.
demand
A very strong request for something; something that somebody needs.
Example
a demand for higher pay
demarcation
The action of fixing boundaries or limits of something; a dividing line.
Example
The commission was tasked with establishing a clear demarcation between civilian and military jurisdiction.
demeanour
Outward behaviour or bearing; the way in which someone conducts themselves.
Example
His calm demeanour in the face of intense scrutiny impressed both allies and opponents.
demise
The death or end of something; the conveyance of property by will or lease.
Example
Scholars have offered competing explanations for the sudden demise of the Bronze Age civilisations.
democracy
A system of government in which the people of a country can vote to elect their representatives.
Example
parliamentary democracy
demon
An evil spirit.
Example
The people believed the girl was possessed by demons.
demonstration
A public meeting or a march (= an organized walk by many people) at which people show that they are protesting against or supporting somebody/something.
Example
to take part in/go on a demonstration
denial
A statement that something is not true or does not exist; the action of denying something.
Example
the prisoner’s repeated denials of the charges against him
denouement
The final part of a narrative in which the strands of the plot are drawn together and matters resolved.
Example
The unexpected denouement of the trial left spectators and commentators alike struggling to process its implications.
density
The quality of being dense; the degree to which something is dense.
Example
The population density in this city is very high.
dentist
A person whose job is to take care of people’s teeth.
Example
to see/visit/consult your dentist
department
A section of a large organization such as a government, business, university, etc.
Example
the Department of Health
departure
An act of leaving a place.
Example
His sudden departure threw the office into chaos.
dependence
The state of needing the help and support of somebody/something in order to survive or be successful.
Example
Our relationship was based on mutual dependence.
dependent
Needing somebody/something in order to survive or be successful.
Example
a woman with several dependent children
deployment
The act of moving soldiers or weapons into a position where they are ready for military action.
Example
the deployment of peacekeeping forces
deposit
A sum of money that is given as the first part of a larger payment.
Example
They normally ask you to pay $100 (as a) deposit.
depravity
Moral corruption; extreme wickedness.
Example
The war crimes tribunal documented acts of depravity that shocked even seasoned observers of armed conflict.
depression
A medical condition in which a person feels very sad, anxious and without hope and often has physical symptoms such as being unable to sleep, etc.
Example
She was diagnosed as having clinical depression.
depth
The distance from the top or surface to the bottom of something; a particular distance down from the surface of something.
Example
What's the depth of the water here?
deputy
A person who is the next most important person below a business manager, a head of a school, a political leader, etc. and who does that person’s job when they are away.
Example
I'm acting as deputy till the manager returns.
descent
An action of coming or going down.
Example
The plane began its descent to Heathrow.
description
A piece of writing or speech that says what somebody/something is like; the act of writing or saying in words what somebody/something is like.
Example
Follow the link below for a more detailed description.
desert
A large area of land that has very little water and very few plants growing on it. Many deserts are covered by sand.
Example
the Sahara Desert
design
The general arrangement of the different parts of something that is made, such as a building, book, machine, etc.
Example
The basic design of the car is very similar to that of earlier models.
designer
A person whose job is to decide how things such as clothes, furniture, tools, etc. will look or work by making drawings, plans or patterns.
Example
one of the country's top fashion designers
desire
A strong wish to have or do something.
Example
He now had enough money to satisfy all his desires.
desk
A piece of furniture like a table, often with drawers (= parts like boxes in it with handles on the front for pulling them open), that you sit at to read, write, work, etc.
Example
at a desk, I spend all day sitting at a desk.
desktop
A screen on a computer that shows the icons of programs and files that can be used.
Example
desktop icons
desolation
A state of complete emptiness or destruction; a feeling of profound loneliness and misery.
Example
The town had been reduced to desolation; not a single building remained habitable after the bombing.
despite
Used to show that something happened or is true although something else might have happened to prevent it.
Example
Her voice was shaking despite all her efforts to control it.
despondency
A state of low spirits caused by loss of hope or courage.
Example
After the third consecutive rejection, a deep despondency settled over her that took months to lift.
dessert
The sweet course eaten at the end of a meal.
Example
What would you like for dessert?
destination
A place to which somebody/something is going or being sent.
Example
popular tourist/holiday destinations like the Bahamas
destruction
The act of destroying something; the process of being destroyed.
Example
the destruction of the rainforests
detachment
The state of being objective, aloof, or not emotionally involved; a group separated from a larger unit.
Example
The ability to maintain emotional detachment while analysing distressing evidence is essential for forensic investigators.
detail
A small individual fact or item; a less important fact or item.
Example
an expedition planned down to the last detail
detection
The process of discovering or noticing something, especially something that is not easy to see, hear, etc.; the fact of being discovered or noticed.
Example
crime prevention and detection
detective
A person, especially a police officer, whose job is to investigate crimes and catch criminals.
Example
a police/homicide/undercover detective
detention
The state of being kept in a place, especially a prison, and prevented from leaving.
Example
They were sentenced to 12 months' detention in a young offender institution.
determination
The quality that makes you continue trying to do something even when this is difficult.
Example
fierce/grim/dogged determination
detriment
The cause of harm or damage; a disadvantageous condition.
Example
The prolonged delays operated to the clear detriment of those claimants who had waited years for resolution.
development
The steady growth of something so that it becomes more advanced, stronger, etc.
Example
a baby’s development in the womb
deviation
The action of departing from an established course, standard, or norm.
Example
Even a minor deviation from the prescribed sterile procedure can have serious consequences in surgical settings.
device
An object or a piece of equipment that has been designed to do a particular job.
Example
a tracking/recording/listening device
devil
The most powerful evil being.
Example
belief in the Devil
dexterity
Skill in performing tasks, especially with the hands; mental skill or adroitness.
Example
The surgeon's extraordinary dexterity allowed her to perform procedures that others considered technically impossible.
diagnosis
The act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness or a problem.
Example
a diagnosis of lung cancer
diagram
A simple drawing using lines to explain where something is, how something works, etc.
Example
The results are shown in diagram 2.
dialectic
The art of investigating truth through reasoned argument and discussion of opposing ideas.
Example
Hegel's dialectic posits that historical development proceeds through the tension and resolution of contradictions.
dialogue
A conversation in a book, play or film or in language teaching materials.
Example
Learners are asked to listen to three short dialogues.
diamond
A clear precious stone of pure carbon, the hardest substance known. Diamonds are used in jewellery and also in industry, especially for cutting glass.
Example
a diamond ring/necklace
diary
A book in which you can write down the experiences you have each day, your private thoughts, etc.
Example
Do you keep a diary (= write one regularly)?
diaspora
The dispersion of a people from their original homeland; the community formed by such dispersal.
Example
The diaspora maintained strong cultural and economic ties with the country of origin across generations.
diatribe
A forceful and bitter verbal attack against someone or something.
Example
His opening remarks devolved into a lengthy diatribe that alienated many of those he had hoped to persuade.
dichotomy
A division or contrast between two things regarded as completely opposite or different.
Example
The dichotomy between theory and practice is one that every applied scientist must learn to navigate.
dictator
A political leader who has complete power over a country, especially one who has gained it using military force.
Example
The country suffered at the hands of a series of military dictators.
dictionary
A book or electronic resource that gives a list of the words of a language in alphabetical order and explains what they mean, or gives a word for them in a foreign language.
Example
a Spanish-English dictionary
diet
The food and drink that you eat and drink regularly.
Example
to eat a healthy, balanced diet
difference
The way in which two people or things are not like each other; the way in which somebody/something has changed.
Example
Americans and Brits speak the same language, but there are big cultural differences.
difficulty
A problem; a thing or situation that causes problems.
Example
the difficulties of English syntax
dig
An excavation, especially an organized archaeological one; or an unkind or critical remark.
Example
She volunteered on an archaeological dig last summer.
dignity
A calm and serious manner that deserves respect.
Example
She accepted the criticism with quiet dignity.
dilemma
A situation that makes problems, often one in which you have to make a very difficult choice between things of equal importance.
Example
I could see no way of resolving this moral dilemma.
diligence
Careful and persistent work or effort; due care and attention to a task.
Example
Her diligence in reviewing every clause of the contract prevented what could have been a costly misunderstanding.
dime
A ten-cent coin (US and Canada).
Example
Can you lend me a dime for the parking meter?
dimension
A measurement in space, for example how high, wide or long something is.
Example
We measured the dimensions of the kitchen.
diminution
A reduction in the size, extent, or importance of something.
Example
The reforms entailed no diminution of individual rights but imposed new obligations on corporate actors.
dinner
The main meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the day or in the evening.
Example
It's time for dinner.
diplomat
A person whose job is to represent his or her country in a foreign country, for example, in an embassy.
Example
Washington's top diplomat in Havana
direction
The general position a person or thing moves or points towards.
Example
They headed in the direction of the village.
director
One of a group of senior managers who run a company.
Example
a non-executive director
directory
A book or electronic resource containing lists of information, usually in alphabetical order, for example people’s phone numbers or the names and addresses of businesses in a particular area.
Example
a telephone/trade directory
dirge
A lament for the dead; a mournful song or piece of music.
Example
The orchestra performed a sombre dirge in memory of those who had perished in the conflict.
dirt
Any substance that makes something dirty, for example dust, soil or mud.
Example
His clothes were covered in dirt.
disadvantage
Something that causes problems and tends to stop somebody/something from succeeding or making progress.
Example
a serious/severe/significant disadvantage
disaffection
A feeling of dissatisfaction with those in authority or with a cause; disloyalty.
Example
Growing disaffection among the electorate was visible in the dramatic fall in voter turnout.
disagreement
A situation where people have different opinions about something and often argue.
Example
Disagreement arose about exactly how to plan the show.
disaster
An unexpected event, such as a very bad accident, a flood or a fire, that kills a lot of people or causes a lot of damage.
Example
the world's worst humanitarian disaster
discernment
The ability to judge well; keen insight and sound judgement.
Example
Selecting the right candidate required discernment that went beyond what any formal assessment could provide.
disciple
A follower or student of a teacher, leader, or philosophy.
Example
As a devoted disciple of the economist's methodology, she applied his framework to every problem she encountered.
discipline
The practice of training people to obey rules and orders and punishing them if they do not; the controlled behaviour or situation that is the result of this training.
Example
The school has a reputation for high standards of discipline.
disclosure
The act of making something known or public that was previously secret or private.
Example
the newspaper’s disclosure of defence secrets
discord
Disagreement between people; a harsh, inharmonious combination of sounds.
Example
Unresolved discord within the coalition eventually made governing impossible.
discount
An amount of money that is taken off the usual cost of something.
Example
to get/offer a discount
discourse
A long and serious treatment or discussion of a subject in speech or writing.
Example
a discourse on issues of gender and sexuality
discovery
An act or the process of finding somebody/something, or learning about something that was not known about before.
Example
Researchers in this field have made some important new discoveries.
discrepancy
A lack of compatibility or similarity between two or more facts or claims.
Example
Auditors flagged a significant discrepancy between the reported figures and the underlying transactional data.
discretion
The freedom or power to decide what should be done in a particular situation.
Example
I'll leave it up to you to use your discretion.
discrimination
The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others.
Example
race or sex)
discussion
A conversation about somebody/something; the process of discussing somebody/something.
Example
I discovered something interesting during a family discussion.
disdain
The feeling that someone or something is unworthy of one's consideration; contempt.
Example
She regarded the committee's procedural objections with undisguised disdain.
disease
An illness affecting humans, animals or plants, often caused by infection.
Example
heart/lung/liver disease
dish
A flat shallow container for cooking food in or serving it from.
Example
a baking/serving dish
disillusionment
A feeling of disappointment resulting from the discovery that something is not as good as one believed.
Example
The disillusionment of a generation with mainstream politics created fertile ground for populist movements.
disk
A thin flat round object.
Example
Red blood cells are roughly the shape of a disk.
dislike
A feeling of not liking somebody/something.
Example
He did not try to hide his dislike of his boss.
dismay
Concern and distress caused by something unexpected or unwelcome.
Example
The announcement of the factory closure was received with dismay by the workers and the wider community.
dismissal
The act of dismissing somebody from their job; an example of this.
Example
He still hopes to win his claim against unfair dismissal.
disorder
A condition or illness that causes problems with the way part of the body or brain works.
Example
a blood/bowel disorder
disparity
A great difference or inequality between things or people.
Example
The report highlighted a growing disparity in educational outcomes between affluent and deprived communities.
dispensation
Exemption from a rule or obligation; a system by which something is administered.
Example
Under the new dispensation, local authorities were granted considerably greater fiscal autonomy.
display
An arrangement of things in a public place to inform or entertain people or advertise something for sale.
Example
a beautiful floral display
disposal
The act of getting rid of something.
Example
The council is responsible for waste disposal and street cleaning.
disposition
A person's natural inclination or temperament; the way in which something is arranged.
Example
Her optimistic disposition made her an effective leader during periods of institutional uncertainty.
dispute
An argument between two people, groups or countries; discussion about a subject on which people disagree.
Example
industrial/pay disputes
disrepute
The state of having a bad reputation.
Example
The series of scandals brought the institution into widespread disrepute and undermined public confidence.
disruption
A situation in which it is difficult for something to continue in the normal way; the act of stopping something from continuing in the normal way.
Example
We aim to help you move house with minimum disruption to yourself.
dissension
Disagreement that leads to discord within a group.
Example
Internal dissension within the party hampered its ability to present a coherent platform to voters.
dissent
The holding or expression of opinions at variance with those commonly held or officially approved.
Example
The regime systematically suppressed any form of intellectual or political dissent.
dissertation
A long formal essay or thesis, especially one submitted for an academic degree.
Example
Her doctoral dissertation on medieval trade networks was subsequently revised and published as a monograph.
dissident
A person who opposes official policy, especially that of an authoritarian state.
Example
The dissident had spent eight years in detention before international pressure secured his release.
dissolution
The formal closing down of an assembly, partnership, or official body; the disintegration or decomposition of something.
Example
The prime minister announced the dissolution of parliament and called for a general election.
dissonance
Lack of harmony among musical notes or between ideas, actions, or expectations.
Example
There is considerable cognitive dissonance in claiming to champion equality while perpetuating exclusionary practices.
distance
The amount of space between two places or things.
Example
a short/long distance
distinction
A clear difference or contrast especially between people or things that are similar or related.
Example
distinctions between traditional and modern societies
distress
A feeling of great worry or unhappiness; great mental pain.
Example
The newspaper article caused the actor considerable distress.
distribution
The way that something is spread or exists over a particular area or among a particular group of people.
Example
They studied the geographical distribution of the disease.
district
An area of a country or town, especially one that has particular features.
Example
the City of London’s financial district
dive
A jump into deep water with your head first and your arms in front of you.
Example
a spectacular high dive (= from high above the water)
diversity
A range of many people or things that are very different from each other.
Example
the biological diversity of the rainforests
divination
The practice of seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown through supernatural means.
Example
Anthropologists have documented elaborate systems of divination in virtually every human culture.
division
The process or result of dividing into separate parts; the process or result of dividing something or sharing it out.
Example
The organism begins as a single cell and grows by cell division.
divorce
The legal ending of a marriage.
Example
The marriage ended in divorce in 1996.
doctor
A person who has been trained in medical science, whose job is to treat people who are ill or injured.
Example
You'd better see a doctor about that cough.
doctrine
A belief or set of beliefs held and taught by a Church, a political party, etc.
Example
the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty
document
An official paper, book or electronic file that gives information about something, or that can be used as evidence or proof of something.
Example
Please read and sign the attached document.
documentary
A film or a radio or television programme giving facts about something.
Example
There were some interesting interviews in the documentary.
documentation
The documents that are required for something, or that give evidence or proof of something.
Example
I couldn't enter the country because I didn't have all the necessary documentation.
dog
An animal with four legs and a tail, often kept as a pet or trained for work, for example hunting or guarding buildings. There are many types of dog, some of which are wild.
Example
I took the dog for a walk.
dogma
A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.
Example
Economic dogma proved a poor substitute for empirical analysis when the crisis finally arrived.
doldrums
A state or period of stagnation or depression; the equatorial ocean region of calms and light winds.
Example
The industry spent much of the decade in the doldrums before a wave of technological innovation revived it.
dollar
The unit of money in the US, Canada, Australia and several other countries.
Example
You will be paid in American dollars.
domicile
The country that a person treats as their permanent home; a person's place of residence.
Example
For tax purposes, her domicile was established in the jurisdiction where she had resided for the majority of the year.
dominance
The fact of being more important, powerful or easy to notice than somebody/something else.
Example
political/economic dominance
dominion
Sovereignty or control; the territory of a sovereign or government.
Example
The treaty extended the empire's dominion over territories that had previously been autonomous.
donation
Something that is given to a person or an organization such as a charity, in order to help them; the act of giving something in this way.
Example
a generous/large/small donation
donor
A person or an organization that makes a gift of money, clothes, food, etc. to a charity, etc.
Example
international aid donors (= countries that give money, etc. to help other countries)
door
A piece of wood, glass, etc. that is opened and closed so that people can get in and out of a room, building, car, etc.; a similar thing in a cupboard.
Example
Open the door!
dose
An amount of a medicine or a drug that is taken once, or regularly over a period of time.
Example
a high/low/lethal dose
dossier
A collection of documents about a particular person, event, or subject.
Example
Intelligence agencies had compiled an extensive dossier on the organisation's leadership and financing.
dotage
The period of life in which a person is old and weak; a state of weakness or foolishness in old age.
Example
Even in his dotage, his mind remained sharp and his observations characteristically incisive.
doubt
A feeling of being uncertain about something or not believing something.
Example
a feeling of doubt and uncertainty
downstairs
On a floor of a house or building lower than the one you are on, especially the one at ground level.
Example
a downstairs bathroom
downtown
The centre of a city, especially its main business area.
Example
a hotel in the heart of downtown
dozen
A group of twelve of the same thing.
Example
Give me a dozen, please.
draft
A rough written version of something that is not yet in its final form.
Example
This is only the first draft of my speech.
drag
A person or thing that is annoying or boring; or a forceful pull on something.
Example
Cleaning the house every weekend is such a drag.
drama
A play for the theatre, television or radio.
Example
a costume/period/courtroom/crime drama
drawing
A picture made using a pencil or pen rather than paint.
Example
a pencil/pen-and-ink/charcoal drawing
dress
A piece of clothing that is made in one piece and hangs down to cover the body as far as the legs, sometimes reaching to below the knees, or to the ankles.
Example
a long white dress
dressed
Wearing clothes and not naked or wearing clothes for sleeping.
Example
Hurry up and get dressed.
drink
A liquid for drinking; an amount of a liquid that you drink.
Example
Can I have a drink?
driver
A person who drives a vehicle.
Example
a bus/train/taxi driver
driving
The way that somebody drives a vehicle; the act of driving.
Example
She was convicted of dangerous driving.
drought
A long period of time when there is little or no rain.
Example
Farmers are facing ruin after two years of severe drought.
drudgery
Hard, menial, or dull work.
Example
Automating routine data entry freed the team from the drudgery of manual processing and increased output.
drug
An illegal substance that some people smoke, inject, etc. for the physical and mental effects it has.
Example
He does not smoke or take drugs.
drum
A musical instrument made of a hollow round frame with plastic or skin stretched tightly across one or both ends. You play it by hitting it with sticks or with your hands.
Example
to play the drum
dump
A place where rubbish is left, or an unattractive and unpleasant place to live or visit.
Example
They drove the broken furniture out to the dump.
duo
Two people who perform together or are often seen or thought of together.
Example
the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy
duplicity
Deceitfulness; the practice of being two-faced or saying one thing while doing another.
Example
The internal documents revealed a pattern of duplicity in the company's public communications.
duration
The length of time that something lasts or continues.
Example
The school was used as a hospital for the duration of the war.
duress
Threats, violence, or other pressure used to coerce someone into doing something against their will.
Example
The defence argued that the agreement had been signed under duress and was therefore legally void.
duty
Something that you feel you have to do because it is your moral or legal responsibility.
Example
It is my duty to report it to the police.
dynasty
A line of hereditary rulers; a succession of people from the same family who play a prominent role in business, politics, or another field.
Example
The Tang dynasty is widely regarded as a high point of classical Chinese civilisation and artistic achievement.
ear
Either of the organs on the sides of the head that you hear with.
Example
the left/right ear
earnings
The money that you earn for the work that you do.
Example
a rise in average earnings
earth
The world; the planet that we live on.
Example
the planet Earth
east
The direction that you look towards to see the sun rise; one of the four main points of the compass.
Example
Which way is east?
ebullience
The quality of being cheerful and full of energy; exuberant enthusiasm.
Example
Her natural ebullience made her the ideal choice to front the campaign.
echelon
A level or rank in an organisation, profession, or society.
Example
Decisions of that magnitude are made only at the highest echelons of government.
echo
The reflecting of sound off a wall or inside a particular space so that a noise appears to be repeated; a sound that is reflected back in this way.
Example
There was an echo on the phone and I couldn't hear clearly.
economics
The study of how a society organizes its money, trade and industry.
Example
He studied politics and economics at Yale.
economist
A person who studies or writes about economics.
Example
the World Bank's chief economist
economy
The relationship between production, trade and the supply of money in a particular country or region.
Example
The economy is in recession.
edge
The outside limit of an object, a surface or an area; the part furthest from the centre.
Example
I gripped the edge of my desk to steady myself.
edict
An official order or proclamation issued by a person in authority.
Example
The monarch issued an edict banning all public gatherings for thirty days.
edification
The instruction or improvement of a person morally or intellectually.
Example
The lectures were recorded for the edification of students unable to attend in person.
edifice
A large, imposing building, or a complex system of beliefs or ideas.
Example
The Victorian edifice dominated the town square for over a century.
edition
The form in which a book, newspaper, etc. is published.
Example
a paperback/hardback edition
editor
A person who is in charge of a newspaper, magazine, etc., or part of one, and who decides what should be included.
Example
the editor of the Washington Post
education
A process of teaching, training and learning, especially in schools, colleges or universities, to improve knowledge and develop skills.
Example
primary/elementary education
educator
A person whose job is to teach or educate people.
Example
adult educators (= who teach adults)
effect
A change that somebody/something causes in somebody/something else; a result.
Example
the beneficial effects of exercise
effectiveness
The fact of producing the result that is wanted or intended; the fact of producing a successful result.
Example
to check the effectiveness of the security system
effigy
A sculpture or model of a person, especially one made to be damaged as a protest.
Example
Protesters burned an effigy of the corrupt minister outside parliament.
effort
An attempt to do something especially when it is difficult to do.
Example
The project was a team effort.
effrontery
Insolent or shameless audacity; brazen boldness that disregards normal social boundaries.
Example
She had the effrontery to demand a refund after months of using the product.
effusion
An instance of giving out gas, liquid, or an unrestrained expression of feeling.
Example
His letter was an embarrassing effusion of sentiment that undermined his professional image.
egg
A small oval object with a thin hard shell produced by a female bird and containing a young bird; a similar object (without a hard shell) produced by a female fish, insect, etc.
Example
The female sits on the eggs until they hatch.
elation
A state of great happiness and exhilaration.
Example
The team's elation at winning the championship was visible on every face.
elbow
The joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm where it bends in the middle.
Example
She jabbed him with her elbow.
elderly
Used as a polite word for ‘old’.
Example
an elderly man/woman/lady
election
The process of choosing a person or a group of people for a position, especially a political position, by voting.
Example
presidential/parliamentary/local elections
electricity
A form of energy from charged elementary particles, usually supplied as electric current through cables, wires, etc. for lighting, heating, driving machines, etc.
Example
materials that conduct electricity
electronics
The branch of science and technology that studies electric currents in electronic equipment.
Example
the electronics industry
element
A necessary or typical part of something; one of several parts that something contains.
Example
There are three important elements to consider.
elephant
A very large animal with thick grey skin, large ears, two curved outer teeth called tusks and a long nose called a trunk. There are two types of elephant, the African and the Asian.
Example
herds of elephants
elite
A small group of people in a society, etc. who are powerful and have a lot of influence, because they are rich, intelligent, etc.
Example
a member of the ruling/intellectual elite
A way of sending messages and data to other people by means of computers connected together in a network.
Example
I will be on vacation for a week in November, with no access to email.
emancipation
The fact or process of being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions.
Example
The emancipation of enslaved people transformed the social fabric of the nation.
embargo
An official ban on trade or other commercial activity with a particular country.
Example
The international embargo crippled the regime's ability to import essential goods.
embarrassment
Shy, uncomfortable or guilty feelings; a feeling of being embarrassed.
Example
I nearly died of embarrassment when he said that.
embassy
A group of officials led by an ambassador who represent their government in a foreign country.
Example
embassy officials
emblem
A heraldic device or symbolic object as a distinctive badge of a nation, organisation, or family.
Example
The olive branch has long served as an emblem of peace across many cultures.
emergence
The fact of somebody/something moving out of or away from something and becoming possible to see.
Example
the island’s emergence from the sea 3 000 years ago
emergency
A sudden serious and dangerous event or situation that needs immediate action to deal with it.
Example
This is a medical emergency needing urgent treatment with antibiotics.
emissary
A person sent as a diplomatic representative on a special mission.
Example
The president dispatched a personal emissary to begin back-channel negotiations.
emission
The production or sending out of light, heat, gas, etc.
Example
the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
emphasis
Special importance that is given to something.
Example
Since the elections there has been a greater emphasis on education.
empire
A group of countries or states that are controlled by one leader or government.
Example
These invasions almost led to the collapse of the Roman Empire.
employee
A person who is paid to work for somebody.
Example
The firm has over 500 employees.
employer
A person or company that pays people to work for them.
Example
They're very good employers (= they treat the people that work for them well).
enclave
A portion of territory surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct.
Example
The diplomatic quarter formed a well-guarded enclave within the capital city.
encounter
A meeting, especially one that is sudden, unexpected or violent.
Example
a chance encounter
encouragement
The act of encouraging somebody to do something; something that encourages somebody.
Example
a few words of encouragement
end
The final part of a period of time, an event, an activity or a story.
Example
It's the end of an era.
ending
The last part of a story, film, etc.
Example
His stories usually have a happy ending.
enemy
A person who hates somebody or who acts or speaks against somebody/something.
Example
She didn't have an enemy in the world.
enforcement
The act of making people obey a particular law or rule.
Example
strict enforcement of regulations
engagement
An agreement to marry somebody; the period during which two people are engaged.
Example
Their engagement was announced in the local paper.
engine
The part of a vehicle that produces power to make the vehicle move.
Example
a diesel/petrol engine
engineer
A person whose job involves designing and building engines, machines, roads, bridges, etc.
Example
We worked with a team of scientists and engineers.
engineering
The activity of applying scientific knowledge to the design, building and control of machines, roads, bridges, electrical equipment, etc.
Example
The bridge is a triumph of modern engineering.
enigma
A person or thing that is mysterious, puzzling, or difficult to understand.
Example
His true motivations remained an enigma even to those closest to him.
enmity
A state or feeling of active opposition or hostility.
Example
Centuries of enmity between the two clans finally came to an end with the treaty.
ennui
A feeling of listlessness and dissatisfaction arising from a lack of occupation or excitement.
Example
The aristocratic characters in the novel are consumed by a paralysing ennui.
enormity
The great or extreme scale, seriousness, or extent of something perceived as bad or morally wrong.
Example
It took years for survivors to fully process the enormity of what had occurred.
enterprise
A company or business.
Example
He is in charge of an enterprise with a turnover of $26 billion.
entertainment
Films, music, etc. used to entertain people; an example of this.
Example
radio, television and other forms of entertainment
enthusiasm
A strong feeling of excitement and interest in something and a desire to become involved in it.
Example
Her voice was full of enthusiasm.
enthusiast
A person who is very interested in something and spends a lot of time doing it.
Example
a football enthusiast
entity
Something that exists separately from other things and has its own identity.
Example
The unit has become part of a larger department and no longer exists as a separate entity.
entourage
A group of people attending or surrounding an important person.
Example
The celebrity arrived at the premiere surrounded by a large entourage of assistants.
entrance
A door, gate, passage, etc. used for entering a room, building or place.
Example
the front/back/side entrance of the house
entrenchment
The process of establishing an attitude, habit, or belief so firmly that it is very difficult to change.
Example
The entrenchment of bureaucratic culture made reform virtually impossible.
entrepreneur
A person who makes money by starting or running businesses, especially when this involves taking financial risks.
Example
A creative entrepreneur, he was continually dreaming up new projects.
entropy
A gradual decline into disorder, or a thermodynamic quantity representing unavailable energy in a system.
Example
Without regular maintenance, entropy overtakes even the most carefully designed systems.
entry
An act of going into or getting into a place.
Example
She made her entry to the sound of thunderous applause.
environment
The natural world in which people, animals and plants live.
Example
The government should do more to protect the environment.
envoy
A messenger or representative, especially one on a diplomatic mission.
Example
The UN envoy arrived to mediate between the warring factions.
epicentre
The point on the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake, or the central point of a difficult situation.
Example
London became the epicentre of the financial crisis during those turbulent months.
epicure
A person who takes particular pleasure in fine food and drink.
Example
As a true epicure, she insisted on sourcing every ingredient from specialist suppliers.
epidemic
A large number of cases of a particular disease or medical condition happening at the same time in a particular community.
Example
the outbreak of a flu epidemic
epigram
A pithy saying or remark expressing an idea in a clever and amusing way.
Example
Oscar Wilde's epigrams retain their wit and relevance more than a century later.
epilogue
A section or speech at the end of a book or play that serves as a comment on or conclusion to what has happened.
Example
The epilogue revealed what became of the main characters in the years that followed.
epiphany
A moment of sudden and great revelation or realisation.
Example
The scientist's epiphany came not in the laboratory but during a late-night walk.
episode
One part of a story that is broadcast on television or radio in several parts.
Example
The next episode has not yet been filmed.
epitaph
A phrase or statement written in memory of a person who has died, especially as an inscription on a tombstone.
Example
He composed his own epitaph, requesting a single line that captured his philosophy of life.
epitome
A person or thing that is a perfect example of a particular quality or type.
Example
The cathedral is considered the epitome of Gothic architectural achievement.
epoch
A particular period of time in history or a person's life, especially one marked by notable events.
Example
The invention of the printing press ushered in a new epoch in the dissemination of knowledge.
equal
A person or thing of the same quality or with the same status, rights, etc. as another.
Example
She treats the people who work for her as her equals.
equality
The fact of being equal in rights, status, advantages, etc.
Example
racial/social/gender equality
equanimity
Mental calmness and composure, especially in a difficult situation.
Example
She faced the diagnosis with remarkable equanimity, refusing to allow fear to dominate.
equation
A statement showing that two amounts or values are equal, for example 2x + y = 54.
Example
the numbers on the right-hand side of the equation
equilibrium
A state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
Example
The treaty restored equilibrium to a region that had been destabilised for decades.
equipment
The things that are needed for a particular purpose or activity.
Example
a useful piece of equipment for the kitchen
equivalent
A thing, amount, word, etc. that is equal in value, meaning or purpose to something else.
Example
Send €20 or the equivalent in your own currency.
era
A period of time, usually in history, that is different from other periods because of particular characteristics or events.
Example
the Victorian/modern/post-war era
error
A mistake, especially one that causes problems or affects the result of something.
Example
spelling/typographical/grammatical errors
erudition
The quality of having or showing great knowledge or learning.
Example
His lectures were renowned for their erudition and accessibility in equal measure.
escapade
An act or incident involving excitement, daring, or adventure.
Example
The memoirs recounted his youthful escapades across three continents.
escape
The act or a method of escaping from a place or an unpleasant or dangerous situation.
Example
I had a narrow escape (= I was lucky to have escaped).
escarpment
A long, steep slope or cliff at the edge of a plateau or ridge.
Example
The ancient fort was built along the escarpment, making it nearly impregnable.
essay
A short piece of writing by a student as part of a course of study.
Example
I have to write an essay this weekend.
essence
The most important quality or feature of something, that makes it what it is.
Example
His paintings capture the essence of France.
establishment
An organization, a large institution or a hotel.
Example
The visa is for foreign nationals wishing to study at a university, college or similar educational establishment.
estate
An area of land with a lot of houses or factories of the same type on it.
Example
on an estate, She lives in a tower block on an estate in London.
esteem
Respect and admiration, typically for a person.
Example
He was held in the highest esteem by colleagues who had worked with him for decades.
estimate
A judgement that you make without having the exact details or figures about the size, amount, cost, etc. of something.
Example
to provide/obtain an estimate
ethos
The characteristic spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its attitudes and aspirations.
Example
The school's ethos of rigour and compassion was evident in everything it did.
etymology
The study of the origin and historical development of words.
Example
Understanding the etymology of medical terms can significantly aid memorisation.
eulogy
A speech or piece of writing that praises someone or something highly, typically delivered at a funeral.
Example
Her eulogy captured the essence of her father's character with warmth and precision.
euphemism
A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered too harsh or blunt.
Example
"Downsizing" is a common euphemism for widespread redundancies.
euphoria
A feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness.
Example
The euphoria following the election victory quickly gave way to the hard work of governance.
euro
The unit of money of some countries of the European Union.
Example
I paid five euros for it.
evening
The part of the day between the afternoon and the time you go to bed.
Example
Remember to call me this evening.
event
A thing that happens, especially something important.
Example
recent/current/world events
evidence
The facts, signs or objects that make you believe that something is true.
Example
Researchers have found clear scientific evidence of a link between exposure to sun and skin cancer.
evil
A force that causes bad things to happen; morally bad behaviour.
Example
the eternal struggle between good and evil
exaltation
A feeling or state of extreme happiness or elevation in rank or status.
Example
The chorus rose to a pitch of exaltation that left the audience breathless.
exam
A formal written, spoken or practical test, especially at school or college, to see how much you know about a subject, or what you can do.
Example
to take an exam
example
Something such as an object, a fact or a situation that shows, explains or supports what you say.
Example
Let me give you an example.
excellence
The quality of being extremely good.
Example
a reputation for academic excellence
exception
A person or thing that is not included in a general statement.
Example
Most of the buildings in the town are modern, but the church is an exception.
excess
More than is necessary, reasonable or acceptable.
Example
You can throw away any excess.
exchange
An act of giving something to somebody or doing something for somebody and receiving something in return.
Example
The exchange of prisoners took place this morning.
exchequer
A royal or national treasury, or the funds of a government or individual.
Example
Persistent tax avoidance by corporations places enormous strain on the public exchequer.
excitement
The state of feeling or showing happiness and enthusiasm.
Example
The news caused great excitement among her friends.
exclusion
The act of preventing somebody/something from entering a place or taking part in something.
Example
He was disappointed with his exclusion from the England squad.
excuse
A reason, either true or invented, that you give to explain or defend your behaviour.
Example
Late again! What's your excuse this time?
execution
The act of killing somebody, especially as a legal punishment.
Example
He faced execution by hanging for murder.
executive
A person who has an important job as a manager of a company or an organization.
Example
company/corporate/business/industry executives
exercise
Physical or mental activity that you do to stay healthy or become stronger.
Example
Swimming is good exercise.
exhibit
An object or a collection of objects put in a public place, for example a museum, so that people can see it.
Example
The museum contains some interesting exhibits on Spanish rural life.
exhibition
A collection of things, for example works of art, that are shown to the public.
Example
Have you seen the Picasso exhibition?
exhortation
An address or communication emphatically urging someone to do something.
Example
The general's exhortation before battle was said to have transformed the soldiers' resolve.
exigency
An urgent need or demand, or a pressing difficulty.
Example
The exigencies of war demanded sacrifices that no one could have anticipated.
existence
The state or fact of being real or living or of being present.
Example
I was unaware of his existence until today.
exit
A way out of a public building or vehicle.
Example
Where's the exit?
exodus
A mass departure of people, especially emigrants from a country.
Example
The civil conflict triggered an exodus of skilled professionals to neighbouring countries.
expansion
An act of increasing or making something increase in size, amount or importance.
Example
a period of rapid economic expansion
expatriate
A person who lives outside their native country.
Example
The city's vibrant expatriate community had established dozens of cultural organisations.
expectation
A belief that something will happen because it is likely.
Example
We are confident in our expectation of a full recovery.
expediency
The quality of being convenient and practical despite possibly being improper or immoral.
Example
The decision was driven by political expediency rather than principled policy.
expedition
An organized journey with a particular purpose, especially to find out about a place that is not well known.
Example
to plan/lead/go on an expedition
expenditure
The act of spending or using money; an amount of money spent.
Example
a reduction in public/government/military expenditure
expense
The money that you spend on something.
Example
The garden was transformed at great expense.
experience
The knowledge and skill that you have gained through doing something for a period of time; the process of gaining this.
Example
My lack of practical experience was a disadvantage.
experiment
A scientific test that is done in order to study what happens and to gain new knowledge.
Example
to do/perform/conduct an experiment
expert
A person with special knowledge, skill or training in something.
Example
a legal/security/medical/computer expert
expertise
Expert knowledge or skill in a particular subject, activity or job.
Example
professional/scientific/technical, etc. expertise
explanation
A statement, fact, or situation that tells you why something happened; a reason given for something.
Example
The most likely explanation is that his plane was delayed.
exploit
A brave, exciting, or unusual deed, especially one that becomes well known.
Example
Stories of his sailing exploits have been told for years.
exploitation
A situation in which somebody treats somebody else in an unfair way, especially in order to make money from their work.
Example
the exploitation of children
exploration
The act of travelling through a place in order to find out about it or look for something in it.
Example
Budgets for space exploration have been cut back.
explosion
The sudden violent bursting and loud noise of something such as a bomb exploding; the act of deliberately causing something to explode.
Example
a bomb/nuclear/gas explosion
exponent
A person who believes in and promotes a particular idea, theory, or cause.
Example
She was one of the most eloquent exponents of free-market economics of her generation.
export
The selling and transporting of goods to another country.
Example
a ban on the export of live cattle
exposition
A comprehensive description and explanation of a theory or plan, or the introductory section of a musical composition.
Example
The opening chapters serve as an exposition of the philosophical framework underpinning the argument.
exposure
The state of being in a place or situation where there is no protection from something harmful or unpleasant.
Example
prolonged exposure to harmful radiation
extension
The act of increasing the area of activity, group of people, etc. that is affected by something.
Example
the extension of new technology into developing countries
extent
How large, important, serious, etc. something is.
Example
It is difficult to assess the full extent of the damage.
extra
A thing that is added to something that is not usual, standard or necessary and that costs more.
Example
The monthly fee is fixed and there are no hidden extras (= unexpected costs).
extract
A short passage from a book, piece of music, etc. that gives you an idea of what the whole thing is like.
Example
The following extract is taken from her new novel.
extremist
A person whose opinions, especially about religion or politics, are extreme, and who may do things that are violent or illegal for what they believe.
Example
left-wing/right-wing/political/religious extremists
exultation
A feeling of triumphant elation or jubilation.
Example
Shouts of exultation erupted from the crowd as the final whistle blew.
eye
Either of the two organs on the face that you see with.
Example
The suspect has dark hair and green eyes.
fabric
Material made by weaving wool, cotton, silk, etc., used for making clothes, curtains, etc. and for covering furniture.
Example
They sell a wide variety of printed cotton fabric.
fabrication
The action or process of inventing or manufacturing something, especially a lie or a false account.
Example
The defence argued that the witness's entire testimony was a deliberate fabrication.
facade
The face of a building, especially the principal front, or a deceptive outward appearance.
Example
Behind the facade of corporate respectability lay a network of fraudulent transactions.
face
The front part of the head, where the eyes, nose and mouth are.
Example
a pretty/pale/round face
facet
One side of something many-sided, especially of a cut gem, or one aspect of a subject.
Example
Every facet of the negotiations had been carefully considered before the talks began.
facility
Buildings, services, equipment, etc. that are provided for a particular purpose.
Example
leisure/sports facilities
facsimile
An exact copy, especially of written or printed material.
Example
The museum displayed a facsimile of the original manuscript alongside a modern transcription.
fact
A thing that is known to be true, especially when it can be proved.
Example
First, some basic facts about healthy eating.
faction
A small group of people within a larger one, whose members have some different aims and beliefs to those of the larger group.
Example
There are rival factions within the administration.
factor
One of several things that cause or influence something.
Example
Obesity is a major risk factor for heart disease.
factory
A building or group of buildings where goods are made, mainly by machine.
Example
a car factory
faculty
A department or group of related departments in a college or university.
Example
the Faculty of Law
failure
Lack of success in doing or achieving something.
Example
The success or failure of the plan depends on you.
fairness
The quality of treating people equally or in a way that is reasonable.
Example
The fairness of the judicial system is being questioned.
faith
Trust in somebody’s ability or knowledge; trust that somebody/something will do what has been promised.
Example
If the company can retain its customers' faith, it could become the market leader.
fake
Not what somebody claims it is; appearing to be something it is not.
Example
There were a few stalls selling fake designer clothing.
fall
An act of falling.
Example
I had a bad fall and broke my arm.
fallacy
A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument.
Example
The report exposed the central fallacy underlying the government's economic projections.
fallibility
The tendency to make mistakes or be wrong.
Example
Acknowledging one's fallibility is a prerequisite for genuine intellectual growth.
fame
The state of being known and talked about by many people.
Example
to achieve/win instant fame
familiar
Well known to you; often seen or heard and therefore easy to recognize.
Example
to look/sound/seem familiar
family
A group consisting of one or two parents and their children.
Example
I introduced Neil to the other members of my family.
famine
Extreme scarcity of food, causing widespread hunger and death in a region.
Example
The famine of the 1840s left an indelible mark on Irish demographic and cultural history.
fanaticism
The quality of being fanatical; excessive enthusiasm or zeal, especially in religion or politics.
Example
Political fanaticism thrives in environments where critical thinking is discouraged.
fantasy
A pleasant situation that you imagine but that is unlikely to happen.
Example
He spoke of his childhood fantasies about becoming a famous football player.
farce
A comic dramatic work using buffoonery and horseplay, or an event that is absurd or disorganised.
Example
The inquiry descended into farce when key witnesses refused to appear.
fare
The money that you pay to travel by bus, plane, taxi, etc.
Example
bus/taxi fares
farm
An area of land, and the buildings on it, used for growing crops and/or keeping animals.
Example
a 200-hectare farm
farmer
A person who owns or manages a farm.
Example
My parents are dairy farmers.
farming
The business of managing or working on a farm.
Example
to take up farming
fascinating
Extremely interesting and attractive.
Example
a fascinating story
fashion
A popular style of clothes, hair, etc. at a particular time or place; the state of being popular.
Example
the latest fashion trends
fat
A white or yellow substance in the bodies of animals and humans, stored under the skin.
Example
excess body fat
fatalism
The belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable.
Example
A creeping fatalism had replaced the optimism that once characterised the movement.
father
A male parent of a child or an animal; a person who is acting as the father to a child.
Example
My father died in 2017.
fauna
The animals of a particular region, habitat, or geological period.
Example
The national park protects a remarkable diversity of endemic flora and fauna.
favor
Approval, support, or liking for someone or something. / An act of kindness beyond what is due or usual.
Example
The proposal has found favor with the committee.
favorite
The person or thing you like best.
Example
This song is my favorite.
fear
The bad feeling that you have when you are in danger or when a particular thing frightens you.
Example
Her eyes showed no fear.
feat
An action or a piece of work that needs skill, strength or courage.
Example
The tunnel is a remarkable feat of engineering.
feature
Something important, interesting or typical of a place or thing.
Example
An interesting feature of the city is the old market.
fee
An amount of money that you pay for professional advice or services.
Example
Employees are reimbursed for any legal fees incurred when they relocate.
feeling
Something that you feel through the mind or through the senses.
Example
a feeling of guilt/helplessness/anger/sadness
felony
A serious crime.
Example
He was charged with a felony.
female
An animal that can lay eggs or give birth to babies; a plant that can produce fruit.
Example
One adult female can lay 400 to 500 eggs.
feminist
A person who supports the belief that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men.
Example
Nineteenth-century feminists demanded equal education and employment opportunities for single women.
fence
A structure made of wood or wire supported with posts that is put between two areas of land as a boundary, or around a garden, field, etc. to keep animals in, or to keep people and animals out.
Example
The two women chatted over the garden fence.
fermentation
The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, or a state of agitation.
Example
The slow fermentation process gives this cheese its distinctive and complex flavour.
fervour
Intense and passionate feeling.
Example
He argued his case with a fervour that persuaded even the most sceptical committee members.
festival
A series of performances of music, plays, films, etc., usually organized in the same place once a year; a series of public events connected with a particular activity or idea.
Example
a film/music festival
fetish
An excessive and irrational devotion or commitment to a particular object, activity, or idea.
Example
The institution's fetish for procedural correctness often impeded effective decision-making.
feud
A prolonged and bitter quarrel or dispute between two parties.
Example
The feud between the two families had persisted for three generations without resolution.
fever
A medical condition in which a person has a temperature that is higher than normal.
Example
He has a high fever.
fiasco
A thing that is a complete failure, especially in a ludicrous or humiliating way.
Example
The product launch was a fiasco, with the website crashing within minutes of going live.
fiber
A thread or filament from which a vegetable tissue, mineral substance, or textile is formed.
Example
The rope is made of strong fiber.
fiction
A type of literature that describes imaginary people and events, not real ones.
Example
a work of popular fiction
fidelity
Faithfulness to a person, cause, or belief, or the degree of exactness with which something is reproduced.
Example
The documentary's fidelity to historical fact was praised by academic reviewers.
field
An area of land in the country used for growing crops or keeping animals in, usually surrounded by a fence, etc.
Example
We had to walk across a ploughed field.
fighting
The activity of being involved in a battle against an enemy.
Example
Fighting broke out in three districts of the city last night.
figment
A thing that someone believes to be real but that exists only in their imagination.
Example
The alleged conspiracy proved to be a figment of an overactive imagination.
figure
A number representing a particular amount, especially one given in official information.
Example
the latest sales/crime/unemployment figures
figurehead
A nominal leader or head without real power, or a carved bust at the prow of a ship.
Example
The constitutional monarch served as a figurehead while real power rested with the cabinet.
filibuster
An action such as prolonged speechmaking designed to obstruct progress in a legislative assembly.
Example
The senator's filibuster lasted over twelve hours and temporarily blocked the legislation.
film
A series of moving pictures recorded with sound that tells a story, watched at a cinema or on a television or other device.
Example
Let's stay in and watch a film.
filmmaker
A person who directs the making of a film.
Example
The filmmaker is known for his unique style.
finance
Money used to run a business, an activity or a project.
Example
The project will only go ahead if they can raise the necessary finance.
finding
Information that is discovered as the result of research into something.
Example
Our research findings indicate that pregnant women benefit from this treatment.
finesse
Impressive delicacy and skill in handling a situation or in executing something.
Example
Negotiating the merger required considerable diplomatic finesse from both sides.
finger
One of the four long thin parts that stick out from the hand (or five, if the thumb is included).
Example
She ran her fingers through her hair.
fire
The flames, light and heat, and often smoke, that are produced when something burns.
Example
Most animals are afraid of fire.
firearm
A gun that can be carried.
Example
The police were issued with firearms.
firefighter
A person whose job is to put out fires.
Example
Firefighters were called to a house in Summertown.
firm
A business or company.
Example
a law/consulting/research firm
fish
A creature that lives in water, breathes through gills, and uses fins and a tail for swimming.
Example
They caught several fish.
fishing
The sport or business of catching fish.
Example
They often go fishing.
fissure
A long, narrow opening or line of breakage made by cracking or splitting, or a state of incompatibility.
Example
A deep fissure had developed between the moderate and radical wings of the party.
fitness
The state of being physically healthy and strong.
Example
a magazine on health and fitness
fixed
Staying the same; not changing or able to be changed.
Example
These fixed prices give farmers a degree of financial security.
flag
A piece of cloth with a special coloured design on it that may be the symbol of a particular country or organization, may be used to give a signal or may have a particular meaning. A flag can be attached to a pole (= a long thin straight piece of wood or metal) or held in the hand.
Example
the Italian flag
flame
A hot bright stream of burning gas that comes from something that is on fire.
Example
the tiny yellow flame of a match
flash
A sudden bright light that shines for a moment and then disappears.
Example
a flash of lightning
flavor
The distinctive taste of a food or drink. An indication of the essential character of something.
Example
This ice cream has a strawberry flavor.
flaw
A mistake in something that means that it is not correct or does not work correctly.
Example
The argument is full of fundamental flaws.
fleet
A group of military ships commanded by the same person.
Example
a fleet of destroyers
flexibility
The ability to change to suit new conditions or situations.
Example
The new system offers a much greater degree of flexibility in the way work is organized.
flight
A journey made by air, especially in a plane.
Example
a smooth/comfortable/bumpy flight
float
A vehicle decorated and used in a parade; or a small object used to keep something afloat in water.
Example
The carnival float was covered in flowers and lights.
flood
A large amount of water covering an area that is usually dry.
Example
The heavy rain has caused floods in many parts of the country.
floor
The surface of a room that you walk on.
Example
a wooden/concrete/tiled floor
flora
The plants of a particular region, habitat, or geological period.
Example
The botanical survey catalogued the extraordinary diversity of the island's flora.
flotsam
Wreckage or cargo found floating on water, or discarded odds and ends.
Example
The shoreline was strewn with the flotsam of a consumerist society.
flour
A fine white or brown powder made from grain, especially wheat, and used in cooking for making bread, cakes, etc.
Example
Sift the flour and salt into a bowl.
flow
The steady and continuous movement of something/somebody in one direction.
Example
the flow of an electric current
flower
The coloured part of a plant from which the seed or fruit develops. Flowers usually grow at the end of a stem and last only a short time.
Example
The plant has a beautiful bright red flower.
flu
A serious disease caused by a virus, that causes a high temperature, severe pains and weakness.
Example
The whole family has the flu.
fluid
A liquid; a substance that can flow.
Example
body fluids (= for example, blood)
flux
The action or process of flowing or moving, or continuous change.
Example
With the market in constant flux, long-term planning had become almost impossible.
flying
Travelling in an aircraft.
Example
I'm terrified of flying.
focus
The thing or person that people are most interested in; the act of paying special attention to something and making people interested in it.
Example
It was the main focus of attention at the meeting.
fodder
Food, especially dried hay or feed for livestock, or people or things treated as unimportant.
Example
The scandal provided fresh fodder for the tabloid press for several weeks.
foible
A minor weakness or eccentricity in someone's character.
Example
His colleagues tolerated his foibles because his contributions to the team were invaluable.
fold
A part of something, especially cloth, that is folded or hangs as if it had been folded.
Example
the folds of her dress
folk
People in general.
Example
ordinary working-class folk
folly
A lack of good sense; foolishness, or a costly ornamental building with no practical purpose.
Example
Historians now regard the invasion as an act of extraordinary political folly.
food
Things that people or animals eat.
Example
Pat had prepared food and drink for the work party.
foolhardiness
Reckless boldness arising from a lack of proper consideration of danger or consequences.
Example
What critics called foolhardiness, the explorer herself described as calculated risk-taking.
foot
The lowest part of the leg, below the ankle, on which a person or an animal stands.
Example
My feet are aching.
footage
Part of a film showing a particular event.
Example
old film footage of the moon landing
football
A game played by two teams of 11 players, using a round ball that players kick up and down the playing field. Teams try to kick the ball into the other team’s goal.
Example
The kids were outside playing football.
foray
A sudden attack or incursion into enemy territory, or an attempt to become involved in a new activity.
Example
The company's foray into the Asian market proved more profitable than expected.
forbearance
Patient restraint; the quality of being tolerant and self-controlled.
Example
Diplomatic forbearance was required to prevent the dispute from escalating further.
force
Violent physical action used to obtain or achieve something.
Example
The release of the hostages could not be achieved without the use of force.
forecast
A statement about what will happen in the future, based on information that is available now.
Example
The sales forecasts are encouraging.
forerunner
A person or thing that precedes the coming or development of someone or something else.
Example
This early device was the forerunner of the modern smartphone.
forest
A large area of land that is thickly covered with trees.
Example
a tropical/pine forest
forever
Used to say that a particular situation or state will always exist.
Example
I'll love you forever!
forfeiture
The loss or giving up of something as a penalty for wrongdoing.
Example
The court ordered the forfeiture of assets gained through criminal activity.
fork
A tool with a handle and three or four sharp points (called prongs), used for picking up and eating food.
Example
to eat with a knife and fork
form
A type or variety of something.
Example
all the millions of different life forms on the planet today
format
The general arrangement, plan, design, etc. of something.
Example
The format of the new quiz show has proved popular.
formation
The action of forming something; the process of being formed.
Example
the formation of a new government
formula
A series of letters, numbers or symbols that represent a rule or law.
Example
This formula is used to calculate the area of a circle.
forte
A thing at which someone excels.
Example
Statistical analysis was her forte, and she applied it with exceptional rigour.
fortitude
Courage in pain or adversity; mental and emotional strength.
Example
She endured years of hardship with a fortitude that inspired everyone around her.
forum
An event or medium where people can exchange opinions and ideas on a particular issue; a meeting organized for this purpose.
Example
to hold an international forum on drug abuse
fossil
The parts of a dead animal or a plant that have become hard and turned into rock.
Example
fossils over two million years old
foundation
A principle, an idea or a fact that something is based on and that it grows from.
Example
Respect and friendship provide a solid foundation for marriage.
founder
A person who starts an organization, institution, etc. or causes something to be built.
Example
the founder and president of the company
fraction
A small part or amount of something.
Example
Only a small fraction of a bank's total deposits will be withdrawn at any one time.
fragment
A small part of something that has broken off or comes from something larger.
Example
Police found fragments of glass near the scene.
frame
A strong border or structure of wood, metal, etc. that holds a picture, door, piece of glass, etc. in position.
Example
a picture/photo frame
framework
The parts of a building or an object that support its weight and give it shape.
Example
built on a wooden framework
franchise
Formal permission given by a company to somebody who wants to sell its goods or services in a particular area; formal permission given by a government to somebody who wants to operate a public service as a business.
Example
a franchise agreement/company
fraud
The crime of cheating somebody in order to get money or goods illegally.
Example
She was charged with credit card fraud.
fray
A battle, a fight, or a competitive situation, or the frayed end of something.
Example
Several veteran politicians entered the fray as the leadership contest intensified.
freedom
The power or right to do or say what you want without anyone stopping you.
Example
to defend/protect academic freedom
frenzy
A state or period of uncontrolled excitement or wild behaviour.
Example
The announcement triggered a frenzy of speculation in financial markets worldwide.
frequency
The rate at which something happens or is repeated.
Example
Fatal road accidents have decreased in frequency over recent years.
freshman
A first-year student at a university, college, or high school.
Example
She is a freshman at Harvard.
Friday
The day of the week after Thursday and before Saturday.
Example
It's Friday today, isn't it?
friend
A person you know well and like, and who is not usually a member of your family.
Example
This is my friend Tom.
friendship
A relationship between friends.
Example
They formed a close friendship at college.
frightening
Making you feel afraid.
Example
a frightening experience/prospect/thought
frog
A small animal with smooth skin, that lives both on land and in water (= is an amphibian). Frogs have very long back legs for jumping, and no tail.
Example
the croaking of frogs
front
The part or side of something that faces forward; the side of something that you look at first.
Example
The front of the building was covered with ivy.
fruit
The part of a plant that consists of one or more seeds and a soft inner part, can be eaten as food and usually tastes sweet.
Example
tropical fruits, such as bananas and pineapples
fruition
The point at which a plan or project is realised.
Example
Years of painstaking research finally came to fruition with the publication of the findings.
frustration
The feeling of being frustrated.
Example
in frustration, Dave thumped the table in frustration.
fuel
Any material that produces heat or power, usually when it is burnt.
Example
diesel/jet/rocket fuel
fulcrum
The point on which a lever rests, or the central or most important feature of a situation.
Example
The ambassador's testimony became the fulcrum on which the entire case turned.
fun
The feeling of enjoying yourself; activities that you enjoy.
Example
We had a lot of fun at Sarah's party.
function
A special activity or purpose of a person or thing.
Example
The club serves a useful function as a meeting place.
fund
An amount of money that has been saved or has been made available for a particular purpose.
Example
a disaster relief fund
fundamental
Serious and very important; affecting the most central and important parts of something.
Example
the fundamental principles of scientific method
funding
Money for a particular purpose; the act of providing money for such a purpose.
Example
federal/state funding
fundraising
The activity of collecting money for a charity or organization, often by organizing social events or entertainments.
Example
The hospice is planning a major fundraising event for June.
fur
The soft thick mass of hair that grows on the body of some animals.
Example
The cat carefully licked its fur.
furniture
Objects that can be moved, such as tables, chairs and beds, that are put into a house or an office to make it suitable for living or working in.
Example
garden/office furniture
furor
An outbreak of public anger or excitement; a great commotion.
Example
The minister's remarks caused a furor that lasted well into the following week.
futility
The quality of having no useful result or of being incapable of producing any result.
Example
The poet captured the futility of industrial warfare with devastating clarity.
future
The time that will come after the present or the events that will happen then.
Example
We need to plan for the future.
gaffe
An unintentional act or remark causing embarrassment to its originator; a blunder.
Example
His diplomatic gaffe dominated headlines and overshadowed the official visit.
gain
An increase in the amount of something, especially in wealth or weight.
Example
The opposition made unexpected gains in the last election.
gallery
A room or building for showing works of art, especially to the public.
Example
a picture gallery
gallon
A unit for measuring liquid. In the UK, Canada and other countries it is equal to about 4.5 litres; in the US it is equal to about 3.8 litres. There are four quarts in a gallon.
Example
The tankers carried 130 000 gallons of fuel.
gambit
An act or remark intended to gain an advantage, or an opening move in chess involving sacrifice.
Example
The surprise concession was a calculated gambit to stall the negotiations.
gambling
The activity of playing games of chance for money and of betting on horses, etc.
Example
online/internet gambling
gaming
Playing computer games.
Example
online/mobile/console gaming
gang
An organized group of criminals.
Example
criminal gangs
gap
A space where something is missing.
Example
Extra funding is needed to plug the gap.
garage
A building for keeping one or more cars or other vehicles in.
Example
a double garage (= one for two cars)
garbage
Rubbish or waste, especially domestic refuse.
Example
Please take out the garbage.
garden
A piece of land next to or around your house where you can grow flowers, fruit, vegetables, etc., usually with a lawn (= an area of grass).
Example
a front/back/rear garden
garrison
The troops stationed in a fortified place, or the fortified place itself.
Example
The garrison held out for three months before supplies were finally exhausted.
gas
Any substance like air that is neither a solid nor a liquid, for example hydrogen or oxygen.
Example
Air is a mixture of gases.
gate
A barrier like a door that is used to close an opening in a fence or a wall outside a building.
Example
the front/main gate
gathering
A meeting of people for a particular purpose.
Example
a social/family gathering
gauntlet
A stout glove, or a form of punishment in which someone runs between two rows of people who strike them.
Example
Every new policy proposal must run the gauntlet of parliamentary scrutiny.
gay
Sexually attracted to people of the same sex.
Example
gay men
gear
Equipment in a vehicle that changes the relation between engine speed (or pedal speed on a bicycle) and the speed of the wheels moving forwards or backwards.
Example
Careless use of the clutch may damage the gears.
gender
The fact of being male or female, especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences, rather than differences in biology; members of a particular gender as a group.
Example
issues of class, race and gender
gene
A unit inside a cell that controls a particular quality in a living thing that has been passed on from its parents.
Example
a dominant/recessive gene
genealogy
A line of descent traced continuously from an ancestor, or the study of lines of descent.
Example
The historian traced the genealogy of the ruling dynasty back over five centuries.
generous
Giving or willing to give freely; given freely.
Example
The gallery was named after its most generous benefactor.
genesis
The origin or mode of formation of something.
Example
The genesis of the conflict lay in unresolved territorial disputes from the previous century.
genius
Unusually great intelligence, skill or artistic ability.
Example
the genius of Shakespeare
genocide
The murder of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group, with the aim of destroying that nation or group.
Example
Refugees gave accounts of the mass genocide.
genre
A particular type or style of literature, art, film or music that you can recognize because of its special features.
Example
literary/musical genres
gentleman
A man who is polite and well educated, who has excellent manners and always behaves well.
Example
You acted like a true gentleman.
geography
The scientific study of the earth’s surface, physical features, divisions, products, population, etc.
Example
recent work in economic geography
gestation
The process of developing inside the womb, or the process of developing an idea over a period of time.
Example
The novel had a long gestation, with the author spending a decade refining its themes.
gesture
A movement that you make with your hands, your head or your face to show a particular meaning.
Example
He made a rude gesture at the driver of the other car.
ghost
The spirit of a dead person that a living person believes they can see or hear.
Example
Do you believe in ghosts (= believe that they exist)?
giant
(in stories) a very large strong person who is often cruel and stupid.
Example
tales of giants and ogres
gift
A thing that you give to somebody, especially on a special occasion or to say thank you.
Example
to give/receive a gift
gig
A performance by musicians playing popular music or jazz in front of an audience; a similar performance by a comedian.
Example
They're doing a gig in Boston tonight.
girl
A female child.
Example
a little girl of six
girlfriend
A girl or a woman that somebody is having a romantic relationship with.
Example
He’s got a new girlfriend.
gist
The substance or general meaning of a speech or text.
Example
I missed the opening remarks, but a colleague quickly conveyed the gist of the argument.
glass
A hard, usually clear, substance used, for example, for making windows and bottles.
Example
a sheet/pane of glass
glimpse
A sight of somebody/something for a very short time, when you do not see the person or thing completely.
Example
He caught a glimpse of her in the crowd.
globalization
The process by which businesses, ideas, and cultures spread around the world and become connected.
Example
Globalization has made it easier for companies to operate in many countries.
globe
The world (used especially to emphasize its size).
Example
tourists from every corner of the globe
glory
Great success that brings somebody praise and honour and makes them famous.
Example
Olympic glory in the 100 metres
glossary
An alphabetical list of words relating to a specific subject, text, or dialect, with explanations.
Example
The textbook included an extensive glossary of technical terminology at the back.
glove
A piece of clothing for the hand, made of wool, leather, etc. with separate parts for each finger and the thumb.
Example
a pair of gloves
gluttony
Habitual greed or excess in eating or consuming.
Example
Medieval moralists listed gluttony among the seven deadly sins for its corrosive effects on character.
god
The being or spirit that is worshipped and is believed to have created the universe.
Example
Do you believe in God?
gold
A chemical element. Gold is a yellow precious metal used for making coins, jewellery, beautiful objects, etc.
Example
gold coins/jewellery
golf
A game played over a large area of ground using sticks with a special shape to hit a small hard ball (a golf ball) into a series of 9 or 18 holes, using as few shots as possible.
Example
I play golf every weekend.
goodness
The quality of being good.
Example
the essential goodness of human nature
goods
Things that are produced to be sold.
Example
to produce/buy/sell goods
governance
The activity of governing a country or controlling a company or an organization; the way in which a country is governed or a company or institution is controlled.
Example
He emphasized the company's commitment to high standards of corporate governance.
government
The group of people who are responsible for controlling a country or a state.
Example
to lead/form a government
governor
A person who is the official head of a country or region that is governed by another country.
Example
the former governor of the colony
grace
An attractive quality of movement that is smooth and done with control; a simple and beautiful quality.
Example
She moves with the natural grace of a ballerina.
graduate
A person who has a university degree.
Example
job prospects for graduates
grain
The small hard seeds of food plants such as wheat, rice, etc.; a single seed of such a plant.
Example
Russia sold 12 million tons of grain abroad last year.
grand
Impressive and large or important.
Example
It's not a very grand house.
grandeur
Splendour and impressiveness, especially of appearance or style.
Example
The grandeur of the cathedral interior left visitors momentarily speechless.
grant
A sum of money that is given by the government or by another organization to be used for a particular purpose.
Example
government/federal grants
graphics
Designs, drawings or pictures that are used especially in the production of books, magazines, websites, etc.
Example
Text and graphics are prepared separately and then combined.
grass
A common wild plant with narrow green leaves and stems that are eaten by cows, horses, sheep, etc.
Example
a blade of grass
gratification
Pleasure, especially when gained from the satisfaction of a desire.
Example
Instant gratification has become a dominant expectation in contemporary consumer culture.
grave
A place in the ground where a dead person is buried.
Example
We visited Grandma's grave.
gravitas
Dignity, seriousness, or solemnity of manner.
Example
The role demanded an actor capable of projecting genuine gravitas and authority.
gravity
The force that attracts objects in space towards each other, and that on the earth pulls them towards the centre of the planet, so that things fall to the ground when they are dropped.
Example
Newton’s law of gravity
gray
The color gray.
Example
Gray is a calm color.
green
The colour of grass and the leaves of most plants and trees.
Example
light/pale green
greenhouse
A building with glass walls and roof used for growing plants that need protection from cold weather.
Example
They grow tomatoes in the greenhouse all year round.
grid
A pattern of straight lines, usually crossing each other to form squares.
Example
New York’s grid of streets
grievance
A real or imagined cause for complaint, especially an unfair treatment.
Example
The workers listed their grievances in a formal document presented to management.
ground
The solid surface of the earth.
Example
on the ground, I found her lying on the ground.
group
A number of people or things that are together in the same place or that are connected in some way.
Example
a group of people/students/friends
growth
The process in people, animals or plants of growing physically, mentally or emotionally.
Example
Lack of water will stunt the plant's growth.
guarantee
A formal promise that you will do something or that something will happen.
Example
They are demanding certain guarantees before they sign the treaty.
guard
A person, such as a soldier, a police officer or a prison officer, who protects a place or people, or prevents prisoners from escaping.
Example
prison/border guards
guerrilla
A member of a small group of soldiers who are not part of an official army and who fight against official soldiers, usually to try to change the government.
Example
urban guerrillas (= those who fight in towns)
guest
A person that you have invited to your house or to a particular event that you are paying for.
Example
They only use the dining room when they have guests.
guidance
Help or advice that is given to somebody, especially by somebody older or with more experience.
Example
guidance for teachers on how to use video in the classroom
guide
A person who shows other people the way to a place, especially somebody employed to show tourists around interesting places.
Example
Our tour guide showed us around the old town.
guideline
A set of rules or instructions that are given by an official organization telling you how to do something, especially something difficult.
Example
The government has drawn up guidelines for schools during the pandemic.
guile
Sly or cunning intelligence; the use of clever but dishonest methods.
Example
She negotiated the settlement through a combination of guile and persistence.
guilt
The unhappy feelings caused by knowing or thinking that you have done something wrong.
Example
She had feelings of guilt about leaving her children and going to work.
guitar
A musical instrument that usually has six strings and that you play with your fingers or with a plectrum.
Example
an acoustic/electric guitar
gun
A weapon that is used for firing bullets or shells.
Example
I have never fired a gun in my life.
gut
The tube in the body through which food passes when it leaves the stomach.
Example
It can take up to 72 hours for food to pass through the gut.
gym
A room or hall with equipment for doing physical exercise, for example in a school.
Example
The school has recently built a new gym.
habit
A thing that you do often and almost without thinking, especially something that is hard to stop doing.
Example
You need to change your eating habits.
habitat
The place where a particular type of animal or plant is normally found.
Example
The panda's natural habitat is the bamboo forest.
hair
The substance that looks like a mass of fine threads growing on a person's head.
Example
She has long dark hair.
halcyon
A mythical bird said to breed in a nest floating at sea, or a period of time that was idyllically happy and peaceful.
Example
Those years before the war were remembered as a halcyon of prosperity and cultural flourishing.
half
Either of two equal parts into which something is or can be divided.
Example
two and a half kilos (= 2½)
hall
A space or passage inside the entrance or front door of a building.
Example
in a hall, Her brother was standing in the front hall.
hallmark
A mark stamped on articles of gold, silver, or platinum to certify their standard, or a distinctive feature.
Example
Rigorous attention to evidence has always been a hallmark of her scholarship.
halo
A circle of light shown around or above the head of a holy person, or a positive aura surrounding someone.
Example
The founder's early success cast a halo over all subsequent ventures, however questionable.
handful
The amount of something that can be held in one hand.
Example
a handful of rice
handle
The part of a door, window, etc. that you use to open it.
Example
She turned the handle and opened the door.
handling
The way that somebody deals with or treats a situation, a person, an animal, etc.
Example
I was impressed by his handling of the affair.
happiness
The state of feeling or showing pleasure.
Example
to find true happiness
harangue
A lengthy and aggressive speech delivered to an audience.
Example
The manager's harangue at the weekly meeting demoralised rather than motivated the team.
harassment
The act of annoying or worrying somebody by putting pressure on them or saying or doing unpleasant things to them.
Example
sexual/racial harassment
harbinger
A person or thing that announces or signals the approach of another; a forerunner.
Example
The unexpected frost was a harbinger of the long and brutal winter to come.
harbor
A place on the coast where vessels may find shelter, especially one protected from rough water by piers, jetties, and other artificial structures.
Example
The ships were safe in the harbor.
hardware
The machines and electronic parts in a computer or other electronic system.
Example
We supply computer hardware to businesses.
harm
Damage or injury that is caused by a person or an event.
Example
He would never frighten anyone or cause them any harm.
harmony
A state of peaceful existence and agreement.
Example
social/racial harmony
hatred
A very strong feeling of dislike for somebody/something.
Example
He looked at me with intense hatred.
havoc
Widespread destruction, or a state of great disorder or confusion.
Example
The cyberattack wreaked havoc on the hospital's administrative systems.
hazard
Something that can be dangerous or cause damage.
Example
a fire/safety hazard
head
The part of the body on top of the neck containing the eyes, nose, mouth and brain.
Example
She nodded her head in agreement.
headache
A continuous pain in the head.
Example
He had a terrible headache.
health
The condition of a person’s body or mind.
Example
to be good/bad for your health
healthcare
The service of providing medical care.
Example
the costs of healthcare for the elderly
hearsay
Information received from other people that cannot be substantiated; rumour.
Example
The report was dismissed in court as inadmissible hearsay evidence.
heat
The quality of being hot.
Example
Heat rises.
heating
The process of supplying heat to a room or building; a system used to do this.
Example
to put/turn the heating on
heaven
The place believed to be the home of God where good people go when they die, sometimes imagined to be in the sky.
Example
the kingdom of heaven
heel
The back part of the foot below the ankle.
Example
Apply the cream to dry, cracked heels before bed.
hegemony
Leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others.
Example
The conference challenged the cultural hegemony of Western academic institutions.
height
The measurement of how tall a person or thing is.
Example
Height: 210 mm. Width: 57 mm. Length: 170 mm.
heirloom
A valuable object that has belonged to a family for several generations.
Example
The brooch was a family heirloom, passed from mother to daughter over two centuries.
helicopter
An aircraft without wings that has large blades (= long flat parts) on top that go round. It can fly straight up from the ground and can also stay in one position in the air.
Example
a police/rescue helicopter
hell
The place believed to be the home of devils and where bad people go after death.
Example
He was terrified of going to hell when he died.
helmet
A type of hard hat that protects the head, worn, for example, by a police officer, a soldier or a person riding a bike or motorbike or playing some sports.
Example
Police in riot helmets lined the streets.
help
The act of helping somebody to do something.
Example
Thank you for all your help.
henchman
A faithful follower or political supporter who performs unscrupulous tasks on their leader's behalf.
Example
The dictator's henchmen ensured that dissent was swiftly and brutally suppressed.
herb
A plant whose leaves, flowers or seeds are used to add taste to food, in medicines or for their pleasant smell. parsley, mint and oregano are all herbs.
Example
a herb garden
herbivore
An animal that feeds primarily or exclusively on plants.
Example
The fossil record indicates that this region supported large herbivores well into the period of the climatic transition.
heresy
Belief or opinion contrary to orthodox religious or, by extension, any generally accepted doctrine.
Example
In some academic circles, questioning the dominant paradigm is still treated as heresy.
heritage
The history, traditions, buildings and objects that a country or society has had for many years and that are considered an important part of its character.
Example
Spain’s rich cultural heritage
hero
A person who is admired by many people for doing something brave or good.
Example
a war hero (= somebody who was very brave during a war)
hiatus
A pause or gap in a sequence, series, or process.
Example
After a three-year hiatus, the band returned with a critically acclaimed new album.
hierarchy
A system, especially in a society or an organization, in which people are organized into different levels of importance from highest to lowest.
Example
the social/political hierarchy
highlight
The best, most interesting or most exciting part of something.
Example
One of the highlights of the trip was seeing the Taj Mahal.
highway
A main road for travelling long distances, especially one connecting and going through cities and towns.
Example
Plans were being made for the construction of a new interstate highway system.
hill
An area of land that is higher than the land around it, but not as high as a mountain.
Example
a region of gently rolling hills
hindrance
A thing that provides resistance, delay, or obstruction to something or someone.
Example
The outdated regulatory framework proved a significant hindrance to innovation.
hint
Something that you say or do in an indirect way in order to show somebody what you are thinking.
Example
He gave a broad hint (= one that was obvious) that he was thinking of retiring.
hinterland
The remote areas of a country, or a person's cultural and intellectual background.
Example
The railway opened up vast hinterlands that had previously been inaccessible to commerce.
hip
The area at either side of the body between the top of the leg and the middle part of the body; the joint at the top of the leg that connects it with the top part of the body.
Example
She stood with her hands on her hips.
historian
A person who studies or writes about history; an expert in history.
Example
No serious historian today accepts this theory.
historic
Important in history; likely to be thought of as important at some time in the future.
Example
the restoration of historic buildings
history
All the events that happened in the past.
Example
in history, The battle was a turning point in human history.
hockey
A game played on a field by two teams of 11 players, with curved sticks and a small hard ball. Teams try to hit the ball into the other team’s goal.
Example
to play hockey
hole
A hollow space in something solid or in the surface of something.
Example
He dug a deep hole in the garden.
hollow
Having a hole or empty space inside.
Example
a hollow ball/centre/tube/tree
holocaust
Destruction or slaughter on a mass scale, especially by fire.
Example
The Holocaust remains one of the most thoroughly documented atrocities in human history.
homage
Special honour or respect shown publicly, or a work created in tribute to another.
Example
The film is a passionate homage to the silent cinema of the early twentieth century.
home
The house or flat that you live in, especially with your family.
Example
Old people prefer to stay in their own homes.
homeless
Having no home, and therefore typically living on the streets.
Example
The scheme has been set up to help homeless people.
homework
Work that is given by teachers for students to do at home.
Example
I always do my homework on the bus.
honest
Always telling the truth, and never stealing or cheating.
Example
an honest man/woman
honesty
The quality of being honest.
Example
She answered all my questions with her usual honesty.
honey
A sweet, sticky yellowish-brown fluid made by bees and other insects from nectar collected from flowers. An affectionate term of address.
Example
Bees produce honey.
honor
High respect; great esteem. Adherence to what is right or to a conventional standard of conduct. A privilege.
Example
He was treated as a guest of honor.
hook
A curved piece of metal, plastic or wire for hanging things on, catching fish with, etc.
Example
a picture/curtain/coat hook
hope
A feeling of wanting and expecting a particular thing to happen; something that you wish for.
Example
Don't lose hope—we'll find her.
horn
A hard pointed part that grows, usually in pairs, on the heads of some animals, such as sheep and cows. Horns are often curved.
Example
a large bull with curved horns
horoscope
A forecast of a person's future based on the relative positions of stars and planets at their birth.
Example
Despite her scientific training, she still read her horoscope with mild amusement each morning.
horror
A feeling of great shock or fear.
Example
The thought of being left alone filled her with horror.
horse
A large animal with four legs, a mane (= long thick hair on its neck) and a tail. Horses are used for riding on, pulling carriages, etc.
Example
to ride a horse
hospice
A home or hospital providing care for the terminally ill.
Example
The hospice offered not only medical care but genuine compassion and dignity in dying.
hospital
A large building where people who are ill or injured are given medical treatment and care.
Example
to/into (the) hospital, (British English), He had to go to/into hospital for treatment.
host
A person who invites guests to a meal, a party, etc. or who has people staying at their house.
Example
Ian, our host, introduced us to the other guests.
hostage
A person who is captured and held prisoner by a person or group, and who may be injured or killed if people do not do what the person or group is asking.
Example
Three children were taken hostage during the bank robbery.
hostility
Aggressive or unfriendly feelings or behaviour.
Example
There was a barely veiled hostility in her tone.
hotel
A building where people stay, usually for a short time, paying for their rooms and meals.
Example
a two-star/five-star, etc. hotel
hour
60 minutes; one of the 24 parts that a day is divided into.
Example
I spent an hour on the phone.
house
A building for people to live in, usually for one family.
Example
in a house, We live in a two-bedroom house.
household
All the people living together in a house or flat.
Example
Most households now own at least one car.
housing
Houses, flats, etc. that people live in, especially when referring to their type, price or condition.
Example
rental/student housing
hubris
Excessive pride or self-confidence, especially when it leads to downfall.
Example
The company's collapse was widely attributed to the CEO's hubris and refusal to take advice.
human
A person rather than an animal or a machine.
Example
Dogs can hear much better than humans.
humanity
People in general.
Example
He was found guilty of crimes against humanity.
humor
The quality of being amusing or comic, especially as expressed in literature or speech. A mood or state of mind.
Example
He has a great sense of humor.
hunger
The state of not having enough food to eat, especially when this causes illness or death.
Example
Around fifty people die of hunger every day in the camp.
hunting
Going after and killing wild animals as a sport or for food.
Example
He goes hunting every weekend.
hurricane
A violent storm with very strong winds, especially in the western Atlantic Ocean.
Example
A powerful hurricane hit the Florida coast.
husband
The man that somebody is married to; a married man.
Example
This is my husband, Steve.
hybrid
A thing made by combining two different elements; a mixture.
Example
The new approach is a hybrid of traditional pedagogy and experiential learning techniques.
hydrogen
A colourless gas that is the lightest of all chemical elements and combines with oxygen to form water.
Example
Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen.
hyperbole
Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
Example
Political rhetoric relies heavily on hyperbole to engage and motivate audiences.
hypocrisy
The practice of claiming to have moral standards or beliefs to which one's own behaviour does not conform.
Example
The senator's hypocrisy was exposed when private records contradicted his public statements.
hypothesis
An idea or explanation of something that is based on a few known facts but that has not yet been proved to be true or correct.
Example
to formulate/confirm a hypothesis
hysteria
Exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion or excitement, especially among a large group of people.
Example
Media hysteria surrounding the incident bore little relation to the actual evidence.
ice
Water that has frozen and become solid.
Example
There was ice on the windows.
ice cream
A type of sweet frozen food made from milk fat, tasting of fruit, chocolate, etc. and often eaten as a dessert; a small amount of this food intended for one person, often served in a container made of biscuit that is like a cone in shape.
Example
Desserts are served with cream or ice cream.
icon
A small symbol on a computer or smartphone screen that represents a program or a file.
Example
Click on the printer icon with the mouse.
iconoclasm
The action of attacking or assertively rejecting cherished beliefs or institutions.
Example
His intellectual iconoclasm earned admiration among students but hostility from established academics.
iconoclast
A person who attacks or criticises cherished beliefs or institutions.
Example
As an iconoclast within the movement, she consistently challenged its founding assumptions.
ID
An official way of showing who you are, for example a document with your name, date of birth and often a photograph on it (the abbreviation for ‘identity’ or ‘identification’).
Example
You must carry ID at all times.
identification
The process of showing, proving or recognizing who or what somebody/something is.
Example
The identification of the crash victims was a long and difficult task.
identity
Who or what somebody/something is.
Example
The police are trying to discover the identity of the killer.
ideologue
An adherent of an ideology, especially one who is uncompromising and dogmatic.
Example
The cabinet was split between pragmatic reformers and hardline ideologues.
idiosyncrasy
A mode of behaviour or way of thought peculiar to an individual; an individual characteristic.
Example
His many idiosyncrasies were tolerated because of the brilliance of his scientific output.
idiot
A rude way to refer to somebody who you think is very stupid.
Example
When I lost my passport, I felt such an idiot.
ignominy
Public shame or disgrace.
Example
The once-celebrated official left office in ignominy after the scandal broke.
ignorance
A lack of knowledge or information about something.
Example
They fought a long battle against prejudice and ignorance.
illness
The state of being physically or mentally ill.
Example
The virus can cause illness in humans.
illusion
A false idea or belief, especially about somebody or about a situation.
Example
She's under the illusion that (= believes wrongly that) she'll get the job.
image
A picture, photograph or statue that represents somebody/something.
Example
Most simple leaflets will include text and images.
imagery
Language that produces pictures in the minds of people reading or listening.
Example
poetic imagery
imaginary
Existing only in your mind or imagination.
Example
The equator is an imaginary line around the middle of the earth.
imagination
The ability to create pictures in your mind; the part of your mind that does this.
Example
a vivid/fertile imagination
immensity
The quality of being immeasurably large or great.
Example
Standing at the cliff's edge, one felt the immensity of the ocean with overwhelming force.
immigrant
A person who has come to live permanently in a different country from the one they were born in.
Example
immigrants from other European countries
immigration
The process of coming to live permanently in a different country from the one you were born in; the number of people who do this.
Example
legal/illegal immigration
impact
The powerful effect that something has on somebody/something.
Example
a positive/a negative/an adverse impact
impasse
A situation in which no progress is possible, especially because of disagreement.
Example
The negotiations reached an impasse over the question of territorial boundaries.
impeachment
The process of charging a public official with misconduct in office.
Example
The impeachment proceedings dominated the political agenda for the entire congressional term.
impediment
A hindrance or obstruction in doing something, or a defect in speech.
Example
Lack of infrastructure remains the greatest impediment to economic development in the region.
imperialism
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonisation, use of military force, or other means.
Example
The symposium explored the long-term cultural consequences of nineteenth-century imperialism.
impetus
The force or energy with which a body moves, or a stimulus to progress.
Example
The funding announcement gave fresh impetus to research that had stalled for years.
implement
A tool or piece of equipment used for a particular purpose, especially in farming or gardening.
Example
The garden shed was full of rusty implements.
implementation
The act of making something that has been officially decided start to happen or be used.
Example
the implementation of the new system
implication
A possible effect or result of an action or a decision.
Example
They failed to consider the wider implications of their actions.
import
A product or service that is brought into one country from another.
Example
food imports from abroad
importance
The quality of being important.
Example
She stressed the importance of careful preparation.
impression
An idea, a feeling or an opinion that you get about somebody/something, or that somebody/something gives you.
Example
My first impression of him was favourable.
impropriety
A failure to observe standards of honesty or modesty; improper behaviour or character.
Example
The inquiry uncovered no evidence of financial impropriety by any member of the board.
improvement
The act of making something better; the process of something becoming better.
Example
The economy has shown significant improvement over the past 9 months.
impudence
The quality of being impudent; impertinent or disrespectful behaviour.
Example
The junior official's impudence in contradicting the minister publicly caused considerable offence.
impunity
Exemption from punishment or freedom from the injurious consequences of an action.
Example
Corrupt officials had operated with impunity for so long that accountability seemed unthinkable.
inability
The fact of not being able to do something.
Example
the government’s inability to provide basic services
inadequacy
The state or quality of being inadequate; lack of the quantity or quality required.
Example
The report highlighted the chronic inadequacy of the nation's healthcare infrastructure.
incarceration
The state of being imprisoned.
Example
His incarceration lasted for five years.
incarnation
A living being embodying a deity, spirit, or quality, or one of a series of lifetimes.
Example
In its latest incarnation, the product bears little resemblance to the original prototype.
incentive
Something that encourages you to do something.
Example
There is no incentive for people to save fuel.
inception
The establishment or starting point of an institution or activity; the beginning.
Example
The organisation had championed environmental causes since its inception in the 1970s.
inch
A unit for measuring length or height, equal to 2.54 centimetres. There are 12 inches in a foot.
Example
She's a few inches taller than me.
incidence
The extent to which something happens or has an effect.
Example
an area with a high incidence of crime
incident
Something that happens, especially something unusual or unpleasant.
Example
His bad behaviour was just an isolated incident.
inclination
A person's natural tendency or urge to act or feel in a particular way; a disposition.
Example
She had neither the time nor the inclination to engage with frivolous debate.
inclusion
The fact of including somebody/something; the fact of being included.
Example
His inclusion in the team is in doubt.
income
The money that a person, a region, a country, etc. earns from work, from investing money, from business, etc.
Example
Average household income fell slightly.
incongruity
The state of being incongruous; incompatibility between elements of a situation.
Example
The incongruity of a medieval castle surrounded by motorways struck every visitor.
incredulity
The state of being unwilling or unable to believe something.
Example
The audience received the announcement with barely concealed incredulity.
incumbency
The holding of an office or the period during which it is held.
Example
During his incumbency, the mayor oversaw the most ambitious public works programme in decades.
incumbent
The holder of an office or post.
Example
The incumbent retained her seat with a significantly reduced majority.
incursion
An invasion or attack, especially a sudden or brief one into enemy territory.
Example
The unauthorised incursion into the restricted airspace prompted a formal diplomatic protest.
independence
Freedom from political control by other countries.
Example
Cuba gained independence from Spain in 1898.
index
A list of names or topics that are referred to in a book, etc., usually arranged at the end of a book in alphabetical order or listed in a separate file or book.
Example
Look it up in the index.
indication
A remark or sign that shows that something is happening or what somebody is thinking or feeling.
Example
They gave no indication of how the work should be done.
indicator
A sign that shows you what something is like or how a situation is changing.
Example
The economic indicators are better than expected.
indictment
A sign that a system, society, etc. is very bad or very wrong.
Example
The poverty in our cities is a damning indictment of modern society.
indifference
Lack of interest, concern, or sympathy.
Example
Official indifference to the warning signs allowed the crisis to escalate unchecked.
indignation
Anger or annoyance provoked by what is perceived as unfair treatment.
Example
A wave of public indignation followed the revelation of the executives' bonus arrangements.
indirect
Happening not as the main aim, cause or result of a particular action, but in addition to it.
Example
the indirect effects of the war
indiscretion
Behaviour or speech that is indiscreet or fails to show good judgement.
Example
A single youthful indiscretion threatened to derail an otherwise distinguished career.
indoctrination
The process of teaching a person or group to accept a set of beliefs uncritically.
Example
The curriculum had been designed to promote learning rather than political indoctrination.
indoor
Located, done or used inside a building.
Example
an indoor swimming pool
inducement
A thing that persuades or leads someone to do something; an incentive.
Example
Financial inducements were offered to encourage early retirement among senior staff.
induction
The process of introducing someone to a new role, or reasoning from specific cases to general principles.
Example
A thorough induction programme is essential for integrating new employees effectively.
industry
The production of goods from raw materials, especially in factories.
Example
the needs of British industry
ineptitude
Lack of skill or ability; incompetence.
Example
The inquiry attributed the disaster to a combination of ineptitude and inadequate oversight.
inequality
The unfair difference between groups of people in society, when some have more wealth, status or opportunities than others.
Example
We need to tackle inequality of opportunity wherever we find it.
inequity
Lack of fairness or justice.
Example
Campaigners argued that the tax system perpetuated deep structural inequity.
inertia
A tendency to do nothing or to remain unchanged, or resistance of a body to change in motion.
Example
Institutional inertia prevented the adoption of more effective policies for decades.
infamy
The state of being well known for some bad quality or deed.
Example
The date lives in infamy as the moment the country's democratic institutions were dismantled.
infant
A baby or very young child.
Example
a nursery for infants under two
infatuation
An intense but short-lived passion or admiration for someone or something.
Example
What began as an infatuation with the lifestyle eventually grew into a lifelong vocation.
infection
The act or process of causing or getting a disease.
Example
to cause/prevent infection
inferno
A large, uncontrollable fire, or a place or situation that is very hot and chaotic.
Example
Firefighters battled the inferno for over sixteen hours before it was brought under control.
infirmary
A small hospital or facility for the treatment of the sick, especially within an institution such as a school or military base.
Example
The school infirmary had been expanded twice in the previous decade to keep pace with rising demand for mental-health support.
inflation
A general rise in the prices of services and goods in a particular country, resulting in a fall in the value of money; the rate at which this happens.
Example
the fight against rising inflation
influence
The effect that somebody/something has on the way a person thinks or behaves or on the way that something works or develops.
Example
His early work shows the influence of Cézanne and Matisse.
influx
An arrival or entry of large numbers of people or things.
Example
The sudden influx of investment transformed the city's commercial landscape.
info
Information.
Example
For more info, click here.
information
Facts or details about somebody/something.
Example
a piece of information
infraction
A violation or infringement of a law or agreement.
Example
Even minor infractions of the code of conduct were treated with zero tolerance.
infrastructure
The basic physical systems of a country or organization, such as roads, bridges, and power supplies.
Example
The country needs to invest in modern infrastructure.
ingenuity
The quality of being clever, original, and inventive.
Example
The engineers' ingenuity in solving the structural problem was universally admired.
ingredient
One of the things from which something is made, especially one of the foods that are used together to make a particular dish.
Example
Mix all the ingredients in a bowl.
inhabitant
A person or an animal that lives in a particular place.
Example
the oldest inhabitant of the village
inhumanity
Extremely cruel and brutal behaviour.
Example
The tribunal was convened specifically to document and prosecute the regime's inhumanity.
initial
Happening at the beginning; first.
Example
There is an initial payment of £60 followed by ten instalments of £25.
initiative
A new plan for dealing with a particular problem or for achieving a particular purpose.
Example
a United Nations peace initiative
injection
An act of injecting somebody with a drug or other substance.
Example
to give somebody an injection
injunction
An authoritative warning or order, especially a judicial process ordering a party to do or refrain from doing something.
Example
The court granted an injunction preventing the company from proceeding with the demolition.
injured
Physically hurt; having an injury.
Example
His injured leg prevented him from walking.
injury
Harm done to a person’s or an animal’s body, for example in an accident.
Example
Two people sustained minor injuries.
injustice
The fact of a situation being unfair and of people not being treated equally; an unfair act or an example of unfair treatment.
Example
We are committed to fighting against poverty and injustice.
ink
Coloured liquid for writing, drawing and printing.
Example
in ink, written in ink
inkling
A slight knowledge or suspicion; a hint.
Example
She had not the faintest inkling that her resignation would trigger a leadership crisis.
inmate
One of the people living in an institution such as a prison or a psychiatric hospital.
Example
The jail has 500 inmates.
innocent
Not guilty of a crime, etc.; not having done something wrong.
Example
They have imprisoned an innocent man.
innovation
The introduction of new things, ideas or ways of doing something.
Example
an age of technological innovation
innuendo
An allusive or oblique remark or hint, typically a suggestive or disparaging one.
Example
The article was careful to avoid direct accusations, relying instead on innuendo.
input
Time, knowledge, ideas, etc. that you put into work, a project, etc. in order to make it succeed; the act of putting something in.
Example
I'd appreciate your input on this.
inquiry
An official process to find out the cause of something or to find out information about something.
Example
a murder inquiry
inquisition
A period of prolonged and intensive questioning, or a historical tribunal for the prosecution of heresy.
Example
The press conference descended into something resembling an inquisition.
insect
Any small creature with six legs and a body divided into three parts. Insects usually also have wings. Ants, bees and flies are all insects.
Example
Most birds spend most of the day eating insects.
insert
Something that is added or put inside something else, especially a leaflet placed inside a magazine or newspaper.
Example
A free recipe insert came with this week’s magazine.
insertion
The act of putting something inside something else; a thing that is put inside something else.
Example
An examination is carried out before the insertion of the tube.
inside
The inner part, side or surface of something.
Example
The inside of the box was blue.
insider
A person who knows a lot about a group or an organization, because they are part of it.
Example
The situation was described by one insider as ‘absolute chaos’.
insight
An understanding of what something is like.
Example
There are many valuable insights in her book.
inspection
An official visit to a school, factory, etc. in order to check that rules are being obeyed and that standards are acceptable.
Example
Regular inspections are carried out at the prison.
inspiration
The process that takes place when somebody sees or hears something that causes them to have exciting new ideas or makes them want to create something, especially in art, music or literature.
Example
Dreams can be a rich source of inspiration for an artist.
installation
The act of fixing equipment or furniture in position so that it can be used.
Example
installation costs
instance
A particular example or case of something.
Example
The report highlights a number of instances of injustice.
instant
Happening immediately.
Example
This account gives you instant access to your money.
instinct
A natural quality that makes people and animals tend to behave in a particular way using the knowledge and abilities that they were born with rather than thought or training.
Example
She did not seem to have any of the usual maternal instincts.
institute
An organization that has a particular purpose, especially one that is connected with education or a particular profession; the building used by this organization.
Example
The report was compiled by Germany's five leading economic research institutes.
institution
A large important organization that has a particular purpose, for example a university or bank.
Example
The deal is backed by one of the country's largest financial institutions.
instruction
Detailed information on how to do or use something.
Example
Follow the instructions on the packet carefully.
instructor
A person whose job is to teach somebody a practical skill or sport.
Example
a fitness/driving/ski instructor
instrument
An object used for producing musical sounds, for example a piano or a drum.
Example
to play an instrument
insurance
An arrangement with a company in which you pay them regular amounts of money and they agree to pay the costs, for example, if you die or are ill, or if you lose or damage something.
Example
health/medical insurance
insurgency
An active revolt or uprising against a government or ruler.
Example
The government struggled to contain the insurgency in the northern provinces.
insurrection
A violent uprising against an authority or government.
Example
The insurrection was suppressed within days, but its consequences reverberated for years.
intake
The amount of food, drink, etc. that you take into your body.
Example
high fluid intake
integration
The act or process of combining two or more things so that they work together.
Example
The aim is to promote closer economic integration.
integrity
The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles.
Example
personal/professional/artistic integrity
intellectual
A person who is well educated and enjoys activities in which they have to think seriously about things.
Example
He was a leading intellectual of his day.
intelligence
The ability to learn, understand and think in a logical way about things; the ability to do this well.
Example
a person of high/average/low intelligence
intelligentsia
Intellectuals or highly educated people as a group, especially when regarded as possessing culture and political influence.
Example
The regime viewed the intelligentsia as a potential threat to its ideological control.
intensity
The state or quality of being intense.
Example
intensity of light/sound/colour
intent
What you intend to do.
Example
She denies possessing the drug with intent to supply.
intention
What you intend or plan to do; your aim.
Example
I have no intention of going to the wedding.
interaction
The act of communicating with somebody, especially while you work, play or spend time with them.
Example
the interaction between performers and their audience
interest
The feeling that you have when you want to know or learn more about somebody/something.
Example
Her research has generated interest around the world.
interface
The way a computer program presents information to a user or receives information from a user, in particular the layout of the screen and the menus.
Example
the user interface
interference
The act of getting involved in and trying to influence a situation that should not really involve you, in a way that annoys other people.
Example
They resent foreign interference in the internal affairs of their country.
interior
The inside part of something.
Example
the interior of a building/a car
interlude
A pause or break, or a piece of music or entertainment performed between the acts of a play.
Example
The peace talks provided a brief interlude of optimism in an otherwise bleak period.
internet
An international computer network connecting other networks and computers that allows people to share information around the world.
Example
to surf/browse/access the internet
interpretation
The particular way in which something is understood or explained.
Example
Her evidence suggests a different interpretation of the events.
intersection
A point where two or more things intersect.
Example
The accident occurred at the intersection.
interval
A period of time between two events.
Example
The interval between major earthquakes might be 200 years.
intervention
Action taken to improve or help a situation.
Example
calls for government intervention to save the steel industry
interview
A formal meeting at which somebody is asked questions to see if they are suitable for a particular job, or for a course of study at a college, university, etc.
Example
a job interview
intimation
An indirect suggestion; a hint, or a formal announcement or notice.
Example
The chancellor's speech contained clear intimations of an impending policy reversal.
intimidation
The action of intimidating someone, especially in order to make them do what one wants.
Example
Witness intimidation undermined the integrity of the judicial proceedings.
intransigence
Refusal to change one's views or to agree about something.
Example
The intransigence of both parties made a negotiated settlement almost impossible.
introspection
The examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes.
Example
The period of enforced isolation prompted a degree of introspection he had long avoided.
intuition
The ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
Example
Experienced clinicians often rely on intuition alongside empirical evidence when making diagnoses.
invective
Insulting, abusive, or highly critical language.
Example
The editorial was a sustained piece of political invective rather than a balanced analysis.
invention
A thing or an idea that has been invented.
Example
Fax machines were a wonderful invention at the time.
inventory
A complete list of items such as property, goods in stock, or the contents of a building.
Example
We need to take an inventory of the supplies.
investigation
An official examination of the facts about a situation, crime, etc.
Example
a criminal/murder/police investigation
investigator
A person who examines a situation such as an accident or a crime to find out the truth.
Example
air safety investigators
investment
The act of investing money in something.
Example
foreign/private investment
investor
A person or an organization that invests money in something.
Example
small investors (= private people)
invitation
A spoken or written request to somebody to do something or to go somewhere.
Example
to issue/extend an invitation
invocation
The action of invoking something or someone, especially a deity or spirit, or citing as an authority.
Example
The speech opened with an invocation of the founding principles of the republic.
involvement
The act of taking part in something or dealing with somebody.
Example
US involvement in European wars
iota
An extremely small amount; a jot.
Example
There is not one iota of credible evidence to support that claim.
ire
Anger; fierce fury.
Example
The decision to close the library drew the ire of residents across the borough.
iron
A chemical element. Iron is a hard strong metal that is used to make steel and is also found in small quantities in blood and food.
Example
iron gates/bars/railings
island
A piece of land that is completely surrounded by water.
Example
a small/tiny island
isolation
The act of separating somebody/something; the state of being separate.
Example
geographical isolation
issue
An important topic that people are discussing or arguing about.
Example
a key/major issue
item
One thing on a list of things to buy, do, talk about, etc.
Example
What's the next item on the agenda?
itinerary
A planned route or journey, or a travel document recording a planned route.
Example
The state visit itinerary was released to the press forty-eight hours in advance.
jail
A prison.
Example
She spent a year in jail.
jam
A thick sweet substance made by boiling fruit with sugar, often sold in jars and spread on bread.
Example
strawberry jam
jamboree
A large celebration or party, typically with events and entertainment.
Example
The international trade jamboree attracted delegations from over eighty countries.
jargon
Special words or expressions used by a profession or group and difficult for others to understand.
Example
The report was criticised for its impenetrable jargon and lack of plain-language summaries.
jaunt
A short excursion or journey made for pleasure.
Example
What began as a weekend jaunt to the coast evolved into a two-month journey.
jazz
A type of music with strong rhythms, in which the players often improvise (= make up the music as they are playing), originally created by African American musicians at the beginning of the 20th century.
Example
traditional/modern jazz
jeans
Trousers made of denim (= a type of strong cotton).
Example
I always wear jeans.
jet
A plane driven by jet engines.
Example
a jet aircraft/fighter/airliner
jewelry
Personal ornaments, such as necklaces, rings, or bracelets, that are typically made from or contain jewels and precious metal.
Example
She received a beautiful piece of jewelry for her anniversary.
jingoism
Extreme patriotism, especially in the form of aggressive or warlike foreign policy.
Example
The tabloid's coverage veered dangerously close to jingoism during the international dispute.
job
Work for which you receive regular payment.
Example
I don't have a job at present.
jocularity
The state or quality of being humorous or playful.
Example
His natural jocularity put even the most anxious patients at ease.
joint
A place where two bones are joined together in the body in a way that enables them to bend and move.
Example
inflammation of the knee joint
joke
Something that you say or do to make people laugh, for example a funny story that you tell.
Example
I can't tell jokes.
journal
A newspaper or magazine that deals with a particular subject or profession.
Example
a scientific/an academic journal
journalism
The work of collecting and writing news stories for newspapers, magazines, radio, television or online news sites; the news stories that are written.
Example
I'd like a career in journalism.
journalist
A person whose job is to collect and write news stories for newspapers, magazines, radio, television or online news sites.
Example
a freelance journalist
journey
An act of travelling from one place to another, especially when they are far apart.
Example
They went on a long train journey across India.
journeyman
A worker or sports player who is reliable but not outstanding, or a qualified worker employed by someone else.
Example
He was a solid journeyman actor who could be relied upon in any supporting role.
joust
A combat between mounted knights with lances; by extension, a contest of skill, opinions, or wit.
Example
The televised debate was widely characterised as a joust rather than a substantive exchange of policy positions.
joy
A feeling of great happiness.
Example
Her books have brought joy to millions.
jubilation
A feeling of great happiness and triumph.
Example
There were scenes of jubilation in the streets following the announcement of the peace agreement.
jubilee
A special anniversary of an event, especially one celebrated after twenty-five or fifty years.
Example
The diamond jubilee was marked with a programme of events across the country.
judge
A person in a court who has the authority to decide how criminals should be punished or to make legal decisions.
Example
a High Court judge
judgment
The ability to make considered decisions or come to sensible conclusions. An opinion or conclusion. A decision of a court or judge.
Example
Use your best judgment in this situation.
juggernaut
A huge, powerful, and overwhelming force or institution.
Example
The marketing juggernaut behind the release ensured the product became impossible to ignore.
juice
The liquid that comes from fruit or vegetables; a drink made from this.
Example
a glass of fruit juice
July
The 7th month of the year, between June and August.
Example
in July, She was born in July.
juncture
A particular point in events or time; a critical moment.
Example
At this juncture, the board must decide whether to pursue growth or consolidate.
June
The 6th month of the year, between May and July.
Example
She was born in June.
junior
Having a low rank in an organization or a profession.
Example
a junior partner/minister/officer
jurisdiction
The authority that an official organization has to make legal decisions about somebody/something.
Example
The English court had no jurisdiction over the defendants.
jurisprudence
The theory or philosophy of law, or a body of law on a particular subject.
Example
The landmark ruling significantly advanced the jurisprudence of environmental law.
jurist
A person who has thorough knowledge of the law, especially a judge or legal scholar.
Example
The book drew on the testimony of jurists who had served on constitutional courts in five different jurisdictions.
jury
A group of members of the public who listen to the facts of a case in a court and decide whether or not somebody is guilty of a crime, or whether a claim has been proved.
Example
members of the jury
justice
The fair treatment of people.
Example
She spent her life fighting for social justice and equality for women.
justification
A good reason why something exists or is done.
Example
I can see no possible justification for any further tax increases.
juxtaposition
The fact of two things being seen or placed close together with contrasting effect.
Example
The exhibition's power derived from the juxtaposition of beauty and devastation.
kaleidoscope
A constantly changing pattern or sequence of objects or elements, or a toy tube with mirrors and coloured glass.
Example
The novel presents a kaleidoscope of perspectives on the events of that pivotal year.
ken
One's range of knowledge or sight.
Example
Quantum field theory lies well beyond the ken of most non-specialist readers.
kernel
The central or most important part of something; the core.
Example
At the kernel of the argument lies a fundamental misunderstanding of causation.
keyboard
The set of keys for operating a computer or typewriter, or the set of letters that you can touch to write on a smartphone or tablet.
Example
The program locks the keyboard until a password is given.
keynote
A prevailing tone or central theme, especially in a speech or conference.
Example
The keynote address set the intellectual agenda for the entire three-day symposium.
kick
A movement with the foot or the leg, usually to hit something with the foot.
Example
the first kick of the game
kid
A child or young person.
Example
Do you have any kids?
kidney
Either of the two organs in the body that remove waste products from the blood and produce urine.
Example
a kidney infection
killing
An act of killing somebody deliberately.
Example
Their leader condemned the torture and killing of innocent civilians.
kilometer
A metric unit of length equal to 1,000 meters (approximately 0.62 miles).
Example
We walked five kilometers this morning.
kind
A group of people or things that are the same in some way; a particular variety or type.
Example
three kinds of cakes/cake
kindergarten
A school or class that prepares children for first grade. A child in kindergarten is typically 5 or 6 years old.
Example
My youngest child started kindergarten this year.
kindred
One's family and relations; a group of related people.
Example
She felt an immediate sense of kinship among kindred who shared her values and passions.
king
The male ruler of an independent state that has a royal family.
Example
the kings and queens of England
kingdom
A country that has a king or queen as head of state (= official leader of the country).
Example
the United Kingdom
kinship
A sharing of characteristics or origins, or the state of being related by blood.
Example
The study explored how feelings of kinship can extend beyond biological family.
kiss
The act of kissing somebody/something.
Example
Come here and give me a kiss!
kit
A set of tools or equipment that you use for a particular purpose.
Example
a first-aid kit
kitchen
A room in which meals are cooked or prepared.
Example
We ate at the kitchen table.
knee
The joint between the top and bottom parts of the leg where it bends in the middle.
Example
a knee injury
knife
A sharp blade (= metal edge) with a handle, used for cutting or as a weapon.
Example
knives and forks
knoll
A small, rounded hill or mound.
Example
The chapel stood on a low knoll that afforded an unbroken view across the surrounding farmland.
knowledge
The information, understanding and skills that you gain through education or experience.
Example
scientific/technical knowledge and skills
kudos
Praise and honour received for an achievement.
Example
The project earned considerable kudos for the department among senior leadership.
lab
A laboratory.
Example
a computer/research lab
label
A piece of paper, etc. that is attached to something and that gives information about it.
Example
Always read the label carefully.
labor
Work, especially hard physical work. Workers, especially manual workers, considered collectively. The process of childbirth.
Example
Building the pyramids required immense labor.
laboratory
A room or building used for scientific research, experiments, testing, etc.
Example
a clinical/research laboratory
labyrinth
A complicated irregular network of passages, or a complex and confusing arrangement.
Example
Navigating the labyrinth of tax legislation requires both expertise and patience.
lack
The state of not having something or not having enough of something.
Example
a lack of understanding/knowledge
ladder
A piece of equipment for climbing up and down a wall, the side of a building, etc., consisting of two lengths of wood or metal that are joined together by steps or rungs.
Example
to climb up/fall off a ladder
lady
A word used to mean ‘woman’ that some people, especially older people, consider is more polite.
Example
There's a lady waiting to see you.
laggard
A person who makes slow progress and falls behind others.
Example
The country had long been regarded as a laggard in the adoption of renewable energy.
lake
A large area of water that is surrounded by land.
Example
in a lake, We swam in the lake.
lampoon
A piece of writing, art, or performance that uses satire to mock someone or something.
Example
The political lampoon circulated online and reached millions within hours of publication.
land
The surface of the earth that is not sea.
Example
The new project will reclaim the land from the sea.
landing
An act of bringing an aircraft or a spacecraft down to the ground after a journey.
Example
a perfect/smooth/safe landing
landlord
A person or company from whom you rent a room, a house, an office, etc.
Example
a buy-to-let landlord (= who buys houses and flats in order to rent them out)
landmark
Something, such as a large building, that you can see clearly from a distance and that will help you to know where you are.
Example
The Empire State Building is a familiar landmark on the New York skyline.
landscape
Everything you can see when you look across a large area of land, especially in the country.
Example
the woods and fields that are typical features of the English landscape
lane
A narrow road in the country.
Example
winding country lanes
language
The system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country or area.
Example
the English language
lapse
A temporary failure of concentration, memory, or judgement; a slip.
Example
A momentary lapse in security protocol allowed the breach to occur.
laptop
A small computer that can work with a battery and be easily carried.
Example
I opened my laptop and started typing.
larceny
Theft of personal property.
Example
He was charged with grand larceny after stealing artwork valued at over a million pounds.
largesse
Generosity in bestowing money or gifts upon others.
Example
The philanthropist's largesse funded an entire wing of the regional hospital.
laser
A device that gives out light in which all the waves oscillate (= change direction and strength) together, typically producing a powerful beam of light that can be used for cutting metal, in medical operations, etc.
Example
a laser beam
latest
The most recent or the newest thing or piece of news.
Example
This is the latest in robot technology.
latitude
Freedom from normal restraints or the angular distance from the equator.
Example
Staff were given considerable latitude to design their own approaches to teaching.
laugh
The sound you make when you think that something is funny or silly.
Example
to give a laugh
laughter
The act or sound of laughing.
Example
to roar/howl with laughter
launch
The action of launching something.
Example
a missile/rocket launch
laureate
A person who is honoured with an award for outstanding creative or intellectual achievement.
Example
The Nobel laureate delivered an impassioned speech on the urgency of climate action.
law
A rule that deals with a particular crime, agreement, etc.
Example
to pass a law (= officially make it part of the system of laws)
lawmaker
A person who makes laws, especially a member of a legislature.
Example
The lawmaker introduced a new bill.
lawn
An area of ground covered in short grass in a garden or park, or used for playing a game on.
Example
In summer we have to mow the lawn twice a week.
lawsuit
A claim or complaint against somebody that a person or an organization can make in court.
Example
He filed a lawsuit against his record label.
lawyer
A person who is trained and qualified to advise people about the law and to represent them in court, and to write legal documents.
Example
to hire a lawyer
lay
The general way that something is positioned or arranged, especially of land or a situation.
Example
We need to study the lay of the land before deciding where to build.
layer
A quantity or sheet of something that lies over a surface or between surfaces.
Example
A thin layer of dust covered everything.
layout
The way in which the parts of something such as the page of a book, a website, a garden or a building are arranged.
Example
the layout of streets
leader
A person who leads a group of people, especially the head of a country, an organization, etc.
Example
party/world leaders
leadership
The state or position of being a leader.
Example
a leadership role/position
leading
Most important or most successful.
Example
a leading expert/authority/figure/member
leaf
A flat green part of a plant, growing from a stem or branch or from the root.
Example
lettuce/cabbage/oak leaves
league
A group of sports teams who all play each other to earn points and find which team is best.
Example
Castleford have led the league for most of the season.
learning
The process of learning something.
Example
lifelong/adult learning
leather
Material made by removing the hair or fur from animal skins and preserving the skins using special processes.
Example
a leather jacket
lectern
A tall stand with a sloping top from which a speaker reads or delivers a lecture.
Example
She stepped up to the lectern and addressed the assembled delegates without notes.
lecture
A talk that is given to a group of people to teach them about a particular subject, often as part of a university or college course.
Example
to go to/attend a lecture
leeway
The amount of freedom to move or act that is available; margin of freedom.
Example
The contract allowed very little leeway for renegotiation once terms were agreed.
left
The left side or direction.
Example
on the left, Take the next road on the left.
leg
One of the long parts that connect the feet to the rest of the body.
Example
Sit on the floor, stretching your legs out in front of you.
legacy
Money or property that is given to you by somebody when they die.
Example
They each received a legacy of $5 000.
legend
A story from ancient times about people and events, that may or may not be true; this type of story.
Example
The film is based on the legend of Robin Hood.
legislation
A law or a set of laws passed by a parliament.
Example
an important piece of legislation
legislature
A group of people who have the power to make and change laws.
Example
a democratically elected legislature
leisure
Time when you are not working or studying; free time.
Example
These days we have more money and more leisure to enjoy it.
lemon
A yellow citrus fruit with juice that has a bitter, sharp taste. Slices of lemon and lemon juice are used in cooking and drinks.
Example
Add a squeeze of lemon juice.
length
The size or measurement of something from one end to the other.
Example
Measure the length of the line from A to B.
lens
A curved piece of glass or plastic that makes things look larger, smaller or clearer when you look through it.
Example
a pair of glasses with tinted lenses
lesbian
Sexually attracted to other women; connected with lesbians.
Example
the lesbian and gay community
lesson
A period of time in which somebody is taught something.
Example
She gives piano lessons.
lethargy
A lack of energy and enthusiasm; sluggishness.
Example
The oppressive heat induced a lethargy that made sustained work impossible.
letter
A written, typed or printed message that is put in an envelope or attached to an email and sent to somebody.
Example
to write/send (somebody) a letter
level
The height of something in relation to the ground or to what it used to be.
Example
The cables are buried one metre below ground level.
levity
The treatment of a serious matter with humour or a lack of appropriate seriousness.
Example
A touch of levity was welcome, but the occasion demanded that solemnity ultimately prevail.
lexicon
The vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge.
Example
The term has entered the mainstream lexicon largely through social media discourse.
liaison
Communication or cooperation that facilitates a close working relationship, or a person who does this.
Example
She served as liaison between the government agency and the research consortium.
liberation
The act or process of freeing a country or a person from the control of somebody else.
Example
a war of liberation
library
A building in which collections of books, newspapers, etc. and sometimes films and recorded music are kept for people to read, study or borrow.
Example
a public/university/school library
lie
A statement made by somebody knowing that it is not true.
Example
to tell a lie
life
The ability to breathe, grow, produce young, etc. that people, animals and plants have before they die and that objects do not have.
Example
This could mean the difference between life and death.
lifestyle
The way in which a person or a group of people lives and works.
Example
Many people are trying to adopt a healthy lifestyle these days.
light
The energy from the sun, a lamp, etc. that makes it possible to see things.
Example
bright/dim light
lighting
The arrangement or type of light in a place.
Example
electric/natural lighting
likelihood
The chance of something happening; how likely something is to happen.
Example
There is very little likelihood of that happening.
limbo
An uncertain period of awaiting a decision or resolution; an intermediate state.
Example
The project remained in limbo for months while funding negotiations stalled.
limit
The greatest or smallest amount of something that is allowed.
Example
They imposed a strict spending limit.
limitation
The act or process of limiting or controlling somebody/something.
Example
They would resist any limitation of their powers.
line
A long, thin mark on a surface.
Example
a straight/solid/dotted/dashed line
lineage
Lineal descent from an ancestor; ancestry or pedigree.
Example
Her scholarly lineage could be traced through four generations of distinguished academics.
lineup
An arrangement of people in a line.
Example
The police conducted a lineup to identify the suspect.
linguist
A person who studies the structure and history of languages, or someone proficient in several languages.
Example
As a linguist trained in both historical and computational methods, she was uniquely placed to evaluate the dating evidence.
link
A connection between two or more people or things.
Example
link between A and B, Police suspect there may be a link between the two murders.
lion
A large, powerful animal of the cat family that hunts in groups and lives in parts of Africa and southern Asia. Lions have yellow-brown fur and the male has a mane (= long, thick hair round its neck).
Example
The lion shook its mane and roared.
lip
Either of the two soft edges at the opening to the mouth.
Example
The assistant pursed her lips.
liquid
A substance that flows freely and is not a solid or a gas, for example water or oil.
Example
She poured the dark brown liquid down the sink.
liquidation
The process of winding up a company's financial affairs, or the conversion of assets into cash.
Example
The firm entered liquidation after failing to secure emergency financing.
list
A series of names, items, figures, etc., especially when they are written or printed.
Example
The guest list includes numerous celebrities.
listener
A person who listens.
Example
a good listener (= somebody who you can rely on to listen with attention or sympathy)
listing
A list, especially an official or published list of people or things, often arranged in alphabetical order.
Example
a comprehensive listing of all airlines
litany
A tedious recital or repetitive series, or a series of petitions in church liturgy.
Example
The report detailed a litany of failures that had been allowed to accumulate over years.
liter
A metric unit of capacity, equal to 1,000 cubic centimeters.
Example
Please buy a liter of milk.
literacy
The ability to read and write.
Example
a campaign to promote adult literacy
literature
Pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays and poems (in contrast to technical books and newspapers, magazines, etc.).
Example
English/American/French literature
litigant
A person involved in a lawsuit.
Example
Self-represented litigants often struggle to navigate complex procedural requirements.
liturgy
A form or formulary according to which public religious worship is conducted.
Example
The revised liturgy was introduced to make the service more accessible to contemporary congregations.
liver
A large organ in the body that cleans the blood and produces bile.
Example
liver disease
living
Money to buy the things that you need in life.
Example
She earns her living as a freelance journalist.
load
Something that is being carried (usually in large amounts) by a person, vehicle, etc.
Example
The trucks waited at the warehouse to pick up their loads.
loan
Money that an organization such as a bank lends and somebody borrows.
Example
to take out/repay a loan (= to borrow money/pay it back)
location
A place where something happens or exists; the position of something.
Example
a honeymoon in a secret location
logic
A way of thinking or explaining something.
Example
I fail to see the logic behind his argument.
longevity
Long life, or the long duration of something.
Example
The longevity of the institution owes much to its capacity for pragmatic self-renewal.
look
An act of looking at somebody/something.
Example
Here, have a look at this.
loop
A shape like a curve or circle made by a line curving right round.
Example
The road went in a huge loop around the lake.
loophole
An ambiguity or inadequacy in the law or a set of rules that enables evasion.
Example
Legislators moved swiftly to close the loophole that had allowed widespread tax avoidance.
lord
(in the UK) a man of high rank in the nobility (= people of high social class), or somebody who has been given the title ‘lord’ as an honour.
Example
She's married to a lord.
lore
A body of traditions and knowledge on a subject held by a particular group.
Example
The forest was rich in local lore that had been passed orally through many generations.
loss
The state of no longer having something or as much of something; the process that leads to this.
Example
I want to report the loss of a package.
lottery
A way of raising money for a government, charity, etc. by selling tickets that have different numbers on them that people have chosen. Numbers are then chosen by chance and the people who have those numbers on their tickets win prizes.
Example
the national/state lottery
lout
A rude, aggressive, or boorish man.
Example
What had begun as a tense exchange escalated when a lout in the crowd threw a bottle at the speaker.
love
A very strong feeling of liking and caring for somebody/something, especially a member of your family or a friend.
Example
She has earned the love and respect of many people.
loyalty
The quality of being constant in your support of somebody/something.
Example
Can I count on your loyalty?
luminary
A person who inspires or influences others, especially one prominent in a particular sphere.
Example
The conference drew luminaries from across the fields of science, policy, and the arts.
lunch
A meal eaten in the middle of the day.
Example
She's gone to lunch.
lung
Either of the two organs in the chest that you use for breathing.
Example
Her father died of lung cancer.
lustre
A gentle sheen or soft glow, or the quality of being impressive and successful.
Example
Years of mismanagement had stripped the once-celebrated brand of its lustre.
luxury
The fact of enjoying special and expensive things, particularly food and drink, clothes and places.
Example
a life of unimaginable luxury
machination
A scheming or crafty action or artful design intended to accomplish some usually evil end.
Example
The investigation exposed the machinations of a network that had corrupted the procurement process.
machine
A piece of equipment with many parts that work together to do a particular task. The power used to work a machine may be electricity, steam, gas, etc. or human power.
Example
Machines have replaced human labour in many industries.
machinery
Machines as a group, especially large ones.
Example
agricultural/industrial machinery
machismo
Strong or aggressive masculine pride, often manifested as an exaggerated sense of strength or virility.
Example
The culture of machismo in the organization discouraged men from acknowledging vulnerability or seeking support.
macrocosm
The whole of a complex structure, especially the universe or society, contrasted with a small or representative part of it.
Example
The sociologist argued that the village functioned as a macrocosm reflecting the tensions of the broader nation.
maelstrom
A powerful whirlpool or, figuratively, a situation of confusion and violent turmoil.
Example
The newly appointed minister was thrust into a maelstrom of competing factions and unresolved crises.
maestro
A distinguished conductor, composer, or teacher of classical music, or by extension any great master of an art.
Example
The maestro commanded the orchestra with an authority born of five decades on the podium.
magazine
A type of large thin book with a paper cover that you can buy every week or month, containing articles, photographs, etc., often on a particular topic; a similar collection of articles, etc. that appears regularly online.
Example
a weekly/monthly magazine
magic
The secret power of appearing to make impossible things happen by saying special words or doing special things.
Example
Do you believe in magic?
magnate
A wealthy and influential person, especially in business or industry.
Example
The media magnate acquired three regional newspapers before the regulatory inquiry was even announced.
magnitude
The great size or importance of something; the degree to which something is large or important.
Example
We did not realize the magnitude of the problem.
The official system used for sending and delivering letters, packages, etc.
Example
a mail service/train/van
mainland
The main area of land of a country or region, not including any islands near to it.
Example
to/from the mainland, a boat to/from the mainland
mainstay
A person or thing on which something else is centrally dependent or relies for support.
Example
Tourism has long been the mainstay of the island's economy, sustaining generations of local families.
maintenance
The act of keeping something in good condition by checking or repairing it regularly.
Example
The school pays for heating and the maintenance of the buildings.
majority
The largest part of a group of people or things.
Example
The majority of people interviewed prefer TV to radio.
making
The act or process of making or producing something.
Example
strategic decision-making
malady
A disease or ailment, or a deeply ingrained problem or failing within a system or society.
Example
Corruption is a malady that, left untreated, spreads from individual transactions to institutional culture.
malaise
A general feeling of discomfort, unease, or lack of well-being, often without an identifiable cause.
Example
The economic malaise of the 1970s produced a crisis of confidence that extended well beyond the financial sector.
malcontent
A person who is discontented or rebellious, especially one who objects to a prevailing system or authority.
Example
The pamphlet circulated anonymously among malcontents who believed the reform bill did not go nearly far enough.
male
A male person, animal or plant.
Example
The male of the species has a white tail.
malfeasance
Wrongdoing, especially by a public official; misconduct or an illegal act committed in an official capacity.
Example
The auditor's report catalogued years of malfeasance, including falsified accounts and misappropriated funds.
malice
The intention or desire to do evil or cause injury to another person.
Example
The prosecution was required to demonstrate that the defendant had acted with deliberate malice rather than mere negligence.
man
An adult male human.
Example
a good-looking young man
management
The activity of running and controlling a business or similar organization.
Example
a career in management
manager
A person who is in charge of running a business, a shop or a similar organization or part of one.
Example
a bank/hotel manager
mandate
The authority to do something, given to a government or other organization by the people who vote for it in an election.
Example
It is undemocratic to govern an area without an electoral mandate.
manifestation
An event, action, or object that clearly shows or embodies something abstract; the process of coming into being.
Example
The rising inequality of the decade was a manifestation of deeper structural flaws in the tax system.
manipulation
Behaviour that controls or influences somebody/something, often in a dishonest way so that they do not realize it.
Example
Advertising like this is a cynical manipulation of the elderly.
manner
Behaviour that is considered to be polite in a particular society or culture.
Example
to have good/bad manners
mannerism
A habitual gesture, way of speaking, or other behavioural trait peculiar to an individual, or an excessive stylistic affectation.
Example
His mannerism of pausing before every substantive reply gave him an air of deliberation that impressed interviewers.
manor
A large country house with lands, historically the principal residence of a lord and the centre of a feudal estate.
Example
The estate agent described the manor as a rare opportunity to acquire an unrestored Georgian property of significant historical merit.
mantle
A role or responsibility that passes from one person to another, or a covering that envelops something.
Example
When the founding director retired, she passed the mantle of leadership to a deputy who had served for two decades.
manufacture
The making of goods in large quantities, especially by machine in a factory.
Example
The manufacture of electric cars has expanded rapidly.
manufacturing
The business or industry of producing goods in large quantities in factories, etc.
Example
Many jobs in manufacturing were lost during the recession.
manuscript
A copy of a book, piece of music, etc. before it has been printed.
Example
an unpublished/original manuscript
map
A drawing or plan of the earth’s surface or part of it, showing countries, towns, rivers, etc.
Example
a map of France
marathon
A long running race of about 42 kilometres or 26 miles.
Example
the London marathon
marauder
A person who roams in search of things to steal or people to attack.
Example
Livestock farmers in the region lived in constant fear of marauders who struck under cover of darkness.
March
The 3rd month of the year, between February and April.
Example
She was born in March.
margin
The empty space at the side of a written or printed page.
Example
the left-hand/right-hand margin
marker
An object or a sign that shows the position of something.
Example
a boundary marker
market
An occasion when people buy and sell goods; the open area or building where they meet to do this.
Example
a fruit/flower/fish market
marketing
The activity of presenting, advertising and selling a company’s products or services in the best possible way.
Example
a marketing campaign/strategy
marketplace
The activity of competing with other companies to buy and sell goods, services, etc.
Example
Companies must be able to survive in the marketplace.
marquee
A large tent erected for an outdoor event; by extension, an indication of star status or top billing.
Example
Securing a marquee speaker transformed the conference from a routine industry gathering into a sold-out event.
marriage
The legal relationship between two people who are married to each other.
Example
a happy/an unhappy marriage
martyrdom
The death or suffering of a martyr, or a display of exaggerated suffering endured for a cause.
Example
The revolutionary's execution ensured his martyrdom and transformed a failed uprising into an enduring political myth.
mask
Something that you wear over your face to hide it, or to frighten or entertain other people.
Example
The robbers wore stocking masks.
masochism
The tendency to derive pleasure from one's own pain or humiliation; more broadly, the enjoyment of self-imposed hardship.
Example
Colleagues joked that his predilection for eighteen-hour workdays bordered on masochism.
masquerade
A false show or pretence, or a costume party at which masks are worn.
Example
What the press release presented as a humanitarian initiative was, in reality, a masquerade for corporate rebranding.
mass
A large amount of a substance that does not have a definite shape or form.
Example
She saw a large dark mass in the water.
massacre
The killing of a large number of people especially in a cruel way.
Example
the bloody massacre of innocent civilians
master
A man who has people working for him, often as servants in his home.
Example
They lived in fear of their master.
match
A sports event where people or teams compete against each other.
Example
(British English), a football match
mate
A friend.
Example
They've been best mates since school.
material
A substance that things can be made from.
Example
building materials (= bricks, sand, glass, etc.)
materialism
A tendency to consider material possessions and comfort as more important than spiritual values, or a philosophical doctrine that physical matter is the fundamental substance of reality.
Example
The novelist critiqued the materialism of suburban life through a protagonist who abandons prosperity in search of meaning.
math
Short for mathematics (chiefly North American).
Example
I find math quite difficult.
mathematics
The science of numbers and shapes. Branches of mathematics include arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry.
Example
the school mathematics curriculum
matriarch
A woman who is the head of a family or tribe, or a woman who dominates a group or activity.
Example
The matriarch of the dynasty controlled every significant business decision well into her ninth decade.
maverick
An independent-minded person who does not follow the conventions of a group; an unbranded or free-ranging animal.
Example
The senator was regarded as a maverick who regularly defied party leadership to vote according to his own conscience.
maxim
A short statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct.
Example
She lived by the maxim that integrity, once lost, cannot be fully recovered regardless of subsequent actions.
maximum
The greatest amount, size, speed, etc. that is possible, recorded or allowed.
Example
a maximum of 30 children in a class
May
The fifth month of the year, between April and June.
Example
She was born in May.
mayhem
Violent or extreme disorder and confusion; historically, the crime of maiming someone.
Example
The unexpected announcement triggered mayhem on the trading floor as dealers scrambled to reassess their positions.
mayor
The head of the government of a town or city, etc., elected by the public.
Example
the Mayor of New York
meal
An occasion when people eat food, especially breakfast, lunch or dinner.
Example
Try not to eat between meals.
meaning
The thing or idea that a sound, word, sign, etc. represents.
Example
What's the meaning of this word?
meantime
For a short period of time but not permanently.
Example
I'm changing my email address but for the meantime you can use the old one.
measure
An official action that is done in order to achieve a particular aim.
Example
safety/austerity measures
measurement
The act or the process of finding the size, quantity or degree of something.
Example
the metric system of measurement
meat
The soft part of an animal or a bird that can be eaten as food; a particular type of this.
Example
a piece/slice of meat
mechanic
A person whose job is repairing machines, especially the engines of vehicles.
Example
a car/motor mechanic
mechanism
A set of moving parts in a machine that performs a task.
Example
a delicate watch mechanism
medal
A flat piece of metal, usually like a coin in shape, that is given to the winner of a competition or to somebody who has been brave, for example in war.
Example
to win a gold medal in the Olympics
media
The main ways that large numbers of people receive information and entertainment, that is television, radio, newspapers and the internet.
Example
the national/international media
mediator
A person who attempts to bring about an agreement or reconciliation between two disputing parties.
Example
An experienced mediator was appointed to facilitate talks between the union and management before the deadline expired.
medication
A drug or another form of medicine that you take to prevent or to treat an illness; treatment involving drugs.
Example
Are you currently taking any medication?
medicine
The study and treatment of diseases and injuries.
Example
advances in modern medicine
mediocrity
The quality or state of being mediocre; moderate or low quality, value, ability, or performance.
Example
The director's refusal to accept mediocrity drove some staff away but produced consistently award-winning work.
meditation
The practice of focusing your mind in silence, especially for religious reasons or in order to make your mind calm.
Example
She found peace through yoga and meditation.
medium
A way of communicating information, etc. to people.
Example
the medium of radio/television
meeting
An occasion when people come together to discuss or decide something.
Example
A hundred people attended the public meeting.
megalomania
An obsessive desire for power, wealth, or importance, often accompanied by delusions of grandeur.
Example
Historians have attributed the collapse of the regime to the leader's unchecked megalomania and growing detachment from reality.
melancholy
A feeling of pensive sadness, typically with no obvious cause; a deep, contemplative sorrow.
Example
An autumnal melancholy settled over the campus as the last undergraduates departed and the buildings fell silent.
melee
A confused crowd of people engaged in a fight, or a state of confused and noisy activity.
Example
What had begun as a protest march dissolved into a melee when a small group began to clash with police.
melody
A tune, especially the main tune in a piece of music written for several instruments or voices.
Example
a haunting melody
melt
A toasted sandwich filled with melted cheese, often with other ingredients; or the act of melting.
Example
I ordered a tuna melt for lunch.
member
A person, an animal or a plant that belongs to a particular group.
Example
a member of the family/community
membership
The state of being a member of a group, a club, an organization, etc.
Example
(British English), Who is eligible to apply for membership of the association?
memento
An object kept as a reminder or souvenir of a person or event.
Example
She kept a pressed flower from the botanical garden as a memento of the afternoon they had spent there together.
memo
An official note from one person to another in the same organization.
Example
to write/send a memo
memorabilia
Objects kept or collected because of their historical significance or association with a notable person or event.
Example
The estate auction included political memorabilia spanning four decades of the senator's public career.
memorial
A statue, stone, etc. that is built in order to remind people of an important past event or of a famous person who has died.
Example
a war memorial (= in memory of soldiers who died in a war)
memory
Your ability to remember things.
Example
I have a bad memory for names.
mentor
An experienced person who advises and helps somebody with less experience over a period of time.
Example
She was a friend and mentor to many young actors.
mercenary
A soldier hired to serve in a foreign army, or a person who is primarily motivated by financial gain.
Example
The conflict drew in mercenaries from three continents, complicating efforts to attribute responsibility for atrocities.
merchant
A person who buys and sells goods in large quantities, especially one who imports and exports goods.
Example
a coal/wine merchant
merger
The act of joining two or more organizations or businesses into one.
Example
If the merger goes through, thousands of jobs will be lost.
merit
The quality of being good and of deserving praise or reward.
Example
a work of outstanding artistic merit
meritocracy
A system in which advancement is based on individual ability or achievement rather than on class privilege or wealth.
Example
The company prided itself on being a meritocracy, yet internal surveys revealed persistent barriers to advancement for minority employees.
mess
A dirty or untidy state.
Example
in a mess, The room was in a mess.
message
A written or spoken piece of information, etc. that you send to somebody or leave for somebody when you cannot speak to them yourself.
Example
There were no messages for me at the hotel.
messiah
A leader regarded as a saviour of a people or a cause, or the promised deliverer of a religious tradition.
Example
The electorate, exhausted by years of instability, greeted the new prime minister with the fervour typically reserved for a messiah.
metal
A type of solid mineral substance that is usually hard and shiny and that heat and electricity can travel through, for example tin, iron and gold.
Example
a piece/sheet of metal
metamorphosis
A profound transformation, either biological or figurative, in form, nature, or character.
Example
Her metamorphosis from hesitant graduate to commanding chief executive was the subject of a celebrated business school case study.
meter
The fundamental unit of length in the metric system, equal to 100 centimeters or approximately 39.37 inches.
Example
The room is five meters long.
method
A particular way of doing something.
Example
Which method is the most effective?
methodology
A set of methods and principles used to perform a particular activity.
Example
recent changes in the methodology of language teaching
mettle
A person's ability to cope well with difficulties; spirit, resilience, and determination.
Example
The crisis tested the mettle of every member of the team and revealed who could be relied upon under sustained pressure.
microcosm
A community or situation regarded as encapsulating in miniature the characteristics of something much larger.
Example
The school served as a microcosm of the city's demographic complexity, reflecting its diversity and its contradictions.
middle
The part of something that is at an equal distance from all its edges or sides; a point or a period of time between the beginning and the end of something.
Example
in the middle, a lake with an island in the middle
midst
The middle part of something.
Example
Such beauty was unexpected in the midst of the city.
migration
The movement every year of large numbers of birds or animals from one place to another.
Example
the seasonal migration of blue whales
mild
Not severe or strong.
Example
a mild form of the disease
mile
A unit for measuring distance equal to 1 609 metres or 1 760 yards.
Example
a 20-mile drive to work
military
Soldiers; the armed forces.
Example
The military was/were called in to deal with the riot.
militia
A group of people who are not professional soldiers but who have had military training and can act as an army.
Example
He said he would call out the state militia if the rebels did not surrender.
milk
The white liquid produced by cows, goats and some other animals as food for their young and used as a drink by humans.
Example
a pint/litre of milk
mill
A building fitted with equipment for grinding grain into flour; a machine for grinding grain.
Example
The old mill has been converted into apartments.
miner
A person who works in a mine taking out coal, gold, diamonds, etc.
Example
Rescuers are trying to save miners trapped underground after a gas explosion.
mineral
A substance that is naturally present in the earth and is not formed from animal or vegetable matter, for example gold and salt. Some minerals are also present in food and drink and in the human body and are essential for good health.
Example
a country rich in mineral resources
minimum
The smallest or lowest amount that is possible, required or recorded.
Example
The class needs a minimum of six students to continue.
minion
A servile or unimportant follower of a powerful person; a subordinate who carries out orders without question.
Example
The executive rarely appeared in person, sending minions to deliver instructions and collect reports on his behalf.
minister
A senior member of the government who is in charge of a government department or a branch of one.
Example
the Minister of Education
ministry
A government department that has a particular area of responsibility.
Example
The Ministry of Defence has issued the following statement.
minor
Not very large, important or serious.
Example
The new plan involves widening a minor road through the valley.
minority
The smaller part of a group; less than half of the people or things in a large group.
Example
Only a small minority of students is/are interested in politics these days.
minute
Each of the 60 parts of an hour, that are equal to 60 seconds.
Example
It's four minutes to six.
minutiae
The small, precise, or trivial details of something.
Example
The legal team spent three weeks negotiating the minutiae of the contract before the headline terms could be finalised.
mirage
An optical illusion caused by atmospheric conditions, or something that appears real but does not exist or cannot be achieved.
Example
The promised prosperity proved to be a mirage, evaporating as soon as the initial investment dried up.
mire
Swampy ground, or a difficult situation from which it is hard to extricate oneself.
Example
The project became trapped in a mire of bureaucratic inertia, and years passed without meaningful progress.
mirror
A piece of special flat glass that reflects images, so that you can see yourself when you look in it.
Example
in the mirror, He looked at himself in the mirror.
misanthrope
A person who dislikes humankind and avoids human society.
Example
The novelist's protagonist was an unreliable misanthrope whose contempt for others masked profound self-loathing.
misery
Great physical or mental pain.
Example
Fame brought her nothing but misery.
misgiving
A feeling of doubt or apprehension about the outcome or propriety of something.
Example
She signed the agreement despite deep misgivings about the partner's financial stability and track record.
mishap
An unlucky accident or minor misfortune.
Example
A series of small mishaps during rehearsal gave way to a flawless performance on opening night.
misnomer
A wrong or inaccurate name or term applied to someone or something.
Example
Calling the policy a tax cut was a misnomer; it merely deferred liabilities to the following fiscal year.
misogyny
Ingrained prejudice against women; dislike, contempt for, or entrenched bias against women.
Example
The inquiry concluded that misogyny within the institution had systematically blocked women's advancement for decades.
missile
A weapon that is sent through the air and that explodes when it hits the thing that it is aimed at.
Example
nuclear missiles
mission
That cannot exist or be done; not possible.
Example
almost/virtually/nearly impossible
mistake
An action or an opinion that is not correct, or that produces a result that you did not want.
Example
It's easy to make a mistake.
mix
A combination of different people or things.
Example
It's a school with a good social and ethnic mix of children.
mixture
A combination of different things.
Example
She was a curious mixture, part grand lady, part wild child.
mob
A large crowd of people, especially one that may become violent or cause trouble.
Example
an angry/unruly mob
mobility
The ability to move easily from one place, social class or job to another.
Example
social/geographical/career mobility
mode
A particular way of doing something; a particular type of something.
Example
a mode of communication
model
A copy of something, usually smaller than the original object.
Example
a working model (= one in which the parts move) of a fire engine
modicum
A small quantity of a particular thing, especially something considered desirable or valuable.
Example
A modicum of professional scepticism is essential when evaluating claims made in corporate earnings announcements.
modification
The act or process of changing something in order to improve it or make it more acceptable; a change that is made.
Example
Considerable modification of the existing system is needed.
module
A self-contained unit or item.
Example
The software is organized into several modules.
mogul
An important or powerful person, especially in the film, media, or business industries.
Example
The entertainment mogul had accumulated enough influence to green-light productions without studio approval.
moment
A very short period of time.
Example
Could you wait a moment, please?
momentum
The ability to keep increasing or developing.
Example
The fight for his release gathers momentum each day.
Monday
The day of the week after Sunday and before Tuesday, the first day of the working week.
Example
It's Monday today, isn't it?
money
What you earn by working or selling things, and use to buy things.
Example
to borrow/save/spend/earn money
moniker
A name or nickname.
Example
The activist acquired the moniker "the Iron Librarian" for her unflinching defence of press freedom.
monitor
A screen that shows information from a computer; a television screen used to show particular kinds of information.
Example
The details of today's flights are displayed on the monitor.
monk
A member of a religious group of men who often live apart from other people in a monastery and who do not marry or have personal possessions.
Example
Benedictine/Buddhist monks
monkey
An animal with a long tail, that climbs trees and lives in hot countries. There are several types of monkey and they are related to apes and humans.
Example
Like humans, apes and monkeys live in complex social groupings.
monolith
A large single upright block of stone, or a large, impersonal, and uniform organisation or system.
Example
Reformers argued that the regulatory monolith needed to be broken up to allow for agile, sector-specific oversight.
monologue
A long speech by one person in a play or conversation, or a dramatic piece performed by a single actor.
Example
The character's final monologue was regarded by critics as one of the most emotionally precise pieces of writing in contemporary drama.
monopoly
The complete control of trade in particular goods or the supply of a particular service; a type of goods or a service that is controlled in this way.
Example
In the past central government had a monopoly on television broadcasting.
monster
(in stories) an imaginary creature that is very large, ugly and frightening.
Example
a monster with three heads
montage
A technique in film or photography of editing a rapid sequence of images to suggest a theme or passage of time, or a picture made of assembled fragments.
Example
The documentary opened with a montage of archive footage that established the scale of the environmental degradation.
month
Any of the twelve periods of time into which the year is divided, for example May or June.
Example
The months of July and August are the hottest.
monthly
Happening once a month or every month.
Example
a monthly meeting/visit/magazine
monument
A building, column, statue, etc. built to remind people of a famous person or event.
Example
A monument to him was erected in St Paul's Cathedral.
mood
The way you are feeling at a particular time.
Example
in a … mood, She's in a good mood today (= happy and friendly).
moon
The round object that moves around the earth once every 27½ days and shines at night by light reflected from the sun.
Example
the surface of the moon
morality
Principles relating to right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.
Example
matters of public/private morality
moratorium
A temporary prohibition of an activity, or a legal authorisation to a debtor to postpone payment.
Example
The government declared a moratorium on new drilling permits while the environmental impact assessment was conducted.
morgue
A place where bodies are kept until burial, identification, or postmortem examination.
Example
The pathologist's testimony described the chain of custody from the morgue through to the laboratory in meticulous detail.
morning
The early part of the day from the time when people wake up until 12 o'clock in the middle of the day or before lunch.
Example
They left for Spain early this morning.
mosaic
A picture or pattern produced by arranging small coloured pieces, or a diverse collection of things forming a unified whole.
Example
The city's cultural mosaic was its greatest asset, attracting talent from every corner of the world.
mosque
A building where Muslims go to worship (= praise God).
Example
I used to pray at the local mosque with my father and grandfather.
mosquito
A slender long-legged fly with aquatic larvae. The bite of the bloodsucking female can transmit diseases like malaria and yellow fever.
Example
A mosquito bite can be very itchy.
mother
A female parent of a child or animal; a person who is acting as a mother to a child.
Example
I want to buy a present for my mother and father.
motion
The act or process of moving or the way something moves.
Example
What was Newton's first law of motion?
motivation
The reason why somebody does something or behaves in a particular way.
Example
What is the motivation behind this sudden change?
motive
A reason for doing something.
Example
There seemed to be no motive for the murder.
motorcycle
A road vehicle with two wheels, driven by an engine, with one seat for the driver and often a seat for a passenger behind the driver.
Example
He never learned to ride a motorcycle or to drive a car.
mount
A horse or other animal used for riding; or a high hill or mountain (often used in names).
Example
She climbed onto her mount and rode out across the field.
mouse
A small animal that is covered in fur and has a long thin tail. Mice live in fields, in people’s houses or where food is stored.
Example
a house mouse
mouth
The opening in the face used for speaking, eating, etc.; the area inside the head behind this opening.
Example
She opened her mouth to say something.
movement
An act of moving the body or part of the body.
Example
hand/eye movements
mud
Wet earth that is soft and sticky.
Example
The car wheels got stuck in the mud.
multiple
Many in number; involving many different people or things.
Example
The shape appears multiple times within each painting.
multitude
A large number of people or things, or the mass of ordinary people.
Example
A multitude of variables must be accounted for when constructing a predictive model for epidemiological spread.
munition
Military weapons, ammunition, equipment, and stores; materials used in war.
Example
The factory had been converted from munition production to commercial manufacturing within a year of the armistice.
mural
A large painting executed directly on a wall or ceiling.
Example
The commissioned mural covered the entire facade of the civic centre and depicted the city's industrial heritage.
murder
The crime of killing somebody deliberately.
Example
He was found guilty of murder.
muscle
A piece of body tissue that you make tight and relax in order to move a particular part of the body; the tissue that forms the muscles of the body.
Example
a calf/neck/thigh muscle
museum
A building in which objects of artistic, cultural, historical or scientific interest are kept and shown to the public.
Example
a museum of modern art
music
Sounds that are arranged in a way that is pleasant or exciting to listen to. People sing music or play it on instruments.
Example
I like any kind of pop or dance music.
musician
A person who plays a musical instrument or writes music, especially as a job.
Example
a jazz/rock/classical musician
mystery
Something that is difficult to understand or to explain.
Example
It is one of the great unsolved mysteries of this century.
mystique
A fascinating aura of mystery, power, and excellence surrounding someone or something.
Example
The brand's mystique was carefully cultivated through scarcity and a deliberate refusal to advertise in mainstream media.
myth
A story from ancient times, especially one that was told to explain natural events or to describe the early history of a people; this type of story.
Example
ancient Greek myths
nadir
The lowest point in the fortunes of a person or organisation; the point on the celestial sphere directly below an observer.
Example
The nadir of his career came when the board publicly withdrew its confidence during an emergency session.
nail
The thin hard layer covering the outer tip of the fingers or toes.
Example
Stop biting your nails!
naivety
Lack of experience, wisdom, or judgement; the quality of being innocent or unsophisticated.
Example
The negotiators exploited his naivety, extracting concessions he would never have made had he sought counsel first.
name
A word or words that a particular person, animal, place or thing is known by.
Example
What's your name?
namesake
A person or thing that has the same name as another, or one who is named after another.
Example
The foundation was established in honour of its namesake, a diplomat who had dedicated forty years to refugee advocacy.
narcissism
Excessive interest in or admiration of oneself and one's physical appearance; self-centredness arising from a failure to distinguish the self from external objects.
Example
Clinical narcissism differs markedly from ordinary self-confidence in its imperviousness to criticism and lack of empathy.
nation
A country considered as a group of people with the same language, culture and history, who live in a particular area under one government.
Example
European/Arab/Asian nations
native
A person who was born in a particular country or area.
Example
a native of New York
neat
Tidy and in order; carefully done or arranged.
Example
She kept her desk extremely neat.
necessity
The fact that something must happen or be done; the need for something.
Example
We recognize the necessity for a written agreement.
need
A situation when something is necessary or must be done.
Example
to satisfy/meet/fulfil a need
needle
A small thin piece of steel that you use for sewing, with a point at one end and a hole for the thread at the other.
Example
a needle and thread
negligence
Failure to take proper care of something, or in law, a failure to exercise the care that a reasonably prudent person would exercise in like circumstances.
Example
The plaintiff's case rested on demonstrating that the contractor's negligence had directly caused the structural failure.
negotiation
Formal discussion between people who are trying to reach an agreement.
Example
peace/trade/contract negotiations
neighbor
A person living near or next door to the speaker or person referred to.
Example
My neighbor lent me some sugar.
nemesis
The inescapable agent of someone's downfall, or a long-standing rival whom one cannot best.
Example
The defence attorney who had thwarted him twice before proved once again to be his nemesis in the appellate court.
neophyte
A person who is new to a subject, skill, or belief; a novice or beginner.
Example
Even as a neophyte, she displayed an intuition for market dynamics that seasoned analysts struggled to explain.
nepotism
The practice of favouring relatives or close associates in appointments to positions of power or advantage.
Example
The board investigated allegations of nepotism after it emerged that three senior appointments had involved family connections to the chairman.
nest
A hollow place or structure that a bird makes or chooses for laying its eggs in and sheltering its young.
Example
sparrows building a nest of twigs and dry grass
net
Material that is made of string, thread or wire twisted or tied together, with small spaces in between; a piece of this material used for a particular purpose.
Example
Unfortunately the animals are often caught in fishing nets.
network
A complicated system of roads, lines, tubes, nerves, etc. that are connected to each other and operate together.
Example
a rail/road/canal network
neutral
Not supporting or helping either side in a disagreement, competition, etc.
Example
Journalists are supposed to be politically neutral.
news
New information about something that has happened recently.
Example
What's the latest news?
newsletter
A report containing news of the activities of a club or organization that is sent regularly to all its members.
Example
Our sailing club produces a monthly newsletter.
newspaper
A set of large printed sheets of paper, or a website, containing news, articles, advertisements, etc. and published every day or every week; the organization responsible for producing this.
Example
a daily/weekly newspaper
nexus
A connection or series of connections linking two or more things; a central or focal point.
Example
The port city became the nexus of three regional trade networks, channelling goods between continents.
niche
A comfortable or suitable role, job, way of life, etc.
Example
He eventually found his niche in sports journalism.
nickel
A silvery-white metallic element. A five-cent coin (US and Canada).
Example
Nickel is used in alloys and plating.
night
The time between one day and the next when it is dark, when people usually sleep.
Example
at night, These animals only come out at night.
nightmare
A dream that is very frightening or unpleasant.
Example
He still has nightmares about the accident.
nihilism
The rejection of all religious and moral principles, typically accompanied by a belief that life is meaningless.
Example
The philosophy student argued that nihilism, properly understood, need not lead to despair but could serve as a starting point for authentic value creation.
nirvana
In Buddhism, the transcendent state of freedom from suffering; more broadly, a state of perfect happiness or an ideal or idyllic place.
Example
The architect described the completed building as a nirvana of spatial efficiency and natural light.
nomenclature
The devising or choosing of names for things, especially in a science or other discipline; a system of names used in a particular field.
Example
Standardising the nomenclature across the research consortium reduced the ambiguity that had plagued collaborative publications.
nomination
The act of suggesting or choosing somebody as a candidate in an election, or for a job or an award; the fact of being suggested for this.
Example
Membership of the club is by nomination only.
nonchalance
A casual lack of concern; an air of easy indifference.
Example
She accepted the prestigious award with a studied nonchalance that her peers found either admirable or infuriating.
nonentity
A person or thing of no significance or interest; an unimportant person.
Example
Once a celebrated innovator, he had become a nonentity in an industry that had moved decisively beyond his expertise.
nor
And not.
Example
She seemed neither surprised nor worried.
norm
A situation or a pattern of behaviour that is usual or expected.
Example
The new design is a departure from the norm.
north
The direction that is on your left when you watch the sun rise; one of the four main points of the compass.
Example
Which way is north?
nose
The part of the face that sticks out above the mouth, used for breathing and smelling things.
Example
She had dark eyes and a long narrow nose.
note
A short piece of writing to help you remember something.
Example
Please make a note of the dates.
notebook
A small book of plain paper for writing notes in.
Example
The police officer wrote the details down in his notebook.
notice
A sheet of paper giving written or printed information, usually put in a public place.
Example
There was a notice on the board saying the class had been cancelled.
notion
An idea, a belief or an understanding of something.
Example
a political system based on the notions of equality and liberty
notoriety
The state of being famous or well known for some bad quality or deed.
Example
The firm's notoriety following the data breach made recruitment of senior talent significantly more difficult.
novel
A story long enough to fill a complete book, in which the characters and events are usually imaginary.
Example
to write/publish/read a novel
novelist
A person who writes novels.
Example
a romantic/historical novelist
November
The 11th month of the year, between October and December.
Example
She was born in November.
novice
A person new to or inexperienced in a field or situation, or a person who has entered a religious order but has not yet taken full vows.
Example
The training programme was designed to bring novices to operational competency within six months.
nuance
A subtle difference in or shade of meaning, expression, sound, or colour.
Example
Diplomatic correspondence depends on a command of nuance that blunt or literal translation invariably destroys.
number
A word or symbol that represents an amount or a quantity.
Example
Think of a number and multiply it by two.
nursery
A place where young children are cared for while their parents are at work; a day nursery or nursery school.
Example
at nursery, Her youngest child is at nursery now.
nursing
The job or skill of caring for people who are sick or injured.
Example
a career in nursing
nut
A small hard fruit with a very hard shell that grows on some trees.
Example
to crack a nut (= open it)
oaf
A stupid, uncultured, or clumsy person.
Example
The character was initially portrayed as an oaf, only for the third act to reveal the deliberate calculation behind his apparent ineptitude.
oasis
A fertile spot in a desert where water is found, or a pleasant and peaceful area amid difficult circumstances.
Example
The reading room served as an oasis of quiet in a building otherwise dominated by open-plan noise.
obesity
The quality or fact of being very fat, in a way that is not healthy.
Example
Obesity can increase the risk of heart disease.
obfuscation
The action of making something unclear, obscure, or unintelligible, often deliberately.
Example
The committee accused the regulator of obfuscation, noting that the report answered none of the substantive questions posed.
obituary
A notice of a death, especially in a newspaper, typically including a brief biography of the deceased.
Example
Her obituary in the broadsheet ran to four columns, a testament to the breadth of her intellectual contribution.
object
A thing that can be seen and touched, but is not alive.
Example
everyday objects such as cups and saucers
objection
A reason why you do not like or are opposed to something; a statement about this.
Example
I'd like to come too, if you have no objection.
objective
Something that you are trying to achieve.
Example
the primary/principal/key objective
obligation
The state of being forced to do something because it is your duty, or because of a law, etc.
Example
You are under no obligation to buy anything.
oblivion
The state of being unaware or unconscious of what is happening, or the state of being forgotten, especially by the public.
Example
Technological disruption consigned several once-dominant formats to commercial oblivion within the span of a decade.
obscenity
An extremely offensive word or expression, or the state or quality of being obscene.
Example
The legal definition of obscenity has long been contested, with courts acknowledging the role of contemporary community standards.
obscurity
The state of being unknown, inconspicuous, or unimportant; the quality of being unclear or difficult to understand.
Example
The composer spent thirty years in obscurity before a chance recording brought international recognition.
observance
The practice of observing the requirements of law, morality, or ritual; a ceremony or festival.
Example
Strict observance of the conflict-of-interest policy was non-negotiable for any member of the advisory panel.
observation
The act of watching somebody/something carefully for a period of time, especially to learn something.
Example
Most information was collected by direct observation of the animals' behaviour.
observer
A person who watches somebody/something.
Example
According to observers, the plane exploded shortly after take-off.
obsession
The state in which a person’s mind is completely filled with thoughts of one particular thing or person in a way that is not reasonable or normal.
Example
Her fear of flying is bordering on obsession.
obsolescence
The process of becoming obsolete or outdated and no longer used.
Example
Planned obsolescence, critics argued, was engineered into consumer electronics to shorten replacement cycles and maximise revenue.
occupation
A job or profession.
Example
Please state your name, age and occupation below.
occurrence
Something that happens or exists.
Example
a common/everyday/frequent/regular occurrence
ocean
The mass of salt water that covers most of the earth’s surface.
Example
The ship was dredged from the depths of the ocean.
October
The 10th month of the year, between September and November.
Example
She was born in October.
odd
Strange or unusual.
Example
They're very odd people.
ode
A lyric poem in an elevated style, typically addressed to a particular subject and often irregular in metre.
Example
Keats's ode to autumn is celebrated for its sensuous imagery and its meditation on ripeness, harvest, and decline.
odyssey
A long adventurous journey or series of experiences, often involving hardship and personal transformation.
Example
Her odyssey through the judicial system lasted eleven years before the conviction was finally overturned.
offender
A person who commits a crime.
Example
a persistent/serious/violent, etc. offender
offensive
Rude in a way that causes somebody to feel upset or annoyed because it shows a lack of respect.
Example
offensive remarks
offering
Something that is produced for other people to use, watch, enjoy, etc.
Example
the latest offering from the Canadian-born writer
office
A room, set of rooms or building where people work, usually sitting at desks.
Example
The company is moving to new offices on the other side of town.
officer
A person who is in a position of authority in the armed forces.
Example
army/military/naval officers
official
A person who is in a position of authority in a large organization.
Example
She is the government official in charge of the project.
oil
A thick liquid that is found in rock underground.
Example
Several companies are drilling for oil in the region.
oligarchy
A form of government in which power rests with a small number of people, typically distinguished by wealth, family, or military power.
Example
Political scientists debated whether the republic had effectively become an oligarchy, with policy shaped by a handful of well-connected donors.
omen
An event regarded as a portent of good or evil; a sign or warning.
Example
The unseasonable frost was taken by the superstitious as an omen that the harvest would be poor.
omission
Something that has been left out or excluded, or the action of excluding or leaving something out.
Example
The omission of any reference to climate risk in the prospectus was later cited as grounds for the class action.
omnipotence
The quality of having unlimited or very great power; the state of being omnipotent.
Example
The philosopher questioned whether divine omnipotence was logically coherent in a universe where evil demonstrably exists.
omniscience
The quality of knowing everything; the state of having complete or unlimited knowledge.
Example
The novel's third-person narrator operates with the omniscience of a god, privy to the private thoughts of every character.
onion
A round vegetable with many layers inside each other and a brown, red or white skin. Onions have a strong smell and taste.
Example
Chop the onions finely.
onset
The beginning of something, especially something unpleasant or difficult.
Example
Early intervention at the onset of symptoms significantly improves long-term outcomes for patients with this condition.
onslaught
A fierce or destructive attack, or a large quantity of something overwhelming and relentless.
Example
The onslaught of negative coverage in the first week forced the campaign to fundamentally rethink its communication strategy.
onus
Something that is one's duty or responsibility; a burden of obligation or responsibility.
Example
The onus rests on the prosecution to prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt, not on the defendant to prove innocence.
opacity
The quality of being difficult to understand or interpret; the condition of being impenetrable to light or investigation.
Example
The opacity of the fund's structure made it virtually impossible for regulators to trace beneficial ownership.
opera
A dramatic work in which all or most of the words are sung to music; works of this type as an art form or entertainment.
Example
Puccini’s operas
operation
The process of cutting open a part of a person’s body in order to remove or repair a damaged part.
Example
Will I need to have an operation?
operator
A person who operates equipment or a machine.
Example
a computer/machine operator
opinion
Your feelings or thoughts about somebody/something, rather than a fact.
Example
He has very strong political opinions.
opponent
A person that you are playing or fighting against in a game, competition, argument, etc.
Example
a political opponent
opportunity
A time when a particular situation makes it possible to do or achieve something.
Example
Don't miss this opportunity!
opposite
A person or thing that is as different as possible from somebody/something else.
Example
Hot and cold are opposites.
opposition
The act of strongly disagreeing with somebody/something, especially with the aim of preventing something from happening.
Example
Opposition came primarily from students.
optimism
A feeling that good things will happen and that something will be successful.
Example
a mood of cautious optimism
option
Something that you can choose to have or do; the freedom to choose what you do.
Example
As I see it, we have two options…
opulence
Great wealth or luxuriousness; ostentatious richness of surroundings.
Example
The restored ballroom conveyed an opulence that seemed almost incongruous against the austere public mood of the era.
oracle
A person or institution considered to provide authoritative and infallible guidance or pronouncements; historically, a priest or priestess acting as a medium for a deity.
Example
The chief economist had become something of an oracle, her quarterly forecasts treated as near-definitive by financial markets.
orange
A round citrus fruit with thick skin of a colour between red and yellow and a lot of sweet juice.
Example
orange peel/zest/rind
orator
A public speaker, especially one who is eloquent and skilled.
Example
A gifted orator, she could hold an audience of thousands in attentive silence for more than an hour.
oratory
The art or practice of formal speaking in public; eloquent or skilled public speaking.
Example
The senator's oratory was legendary, capable of converting the undecided and galvanising the already committed.
orchestra
A large group of people who play various musical instruments together, led by a conductor.
Example
She plays the flute in the school orchestra.
ordeal
A painful or horrific experience, especially a protracted one; historically, a test of guilt or innocence by subjecting the accused to dangerous conditions.
Example
Survivors of the siege described an eighteen-month ordeal of systematic deprivation and psychological pressure.
order
The way in which people or things are placed or arranged in relation to each other.
Example
in… order, The names are listed in alphabetical order.
ordinance
A piece of legislation enacted by a municipal authority, or an authoritative order or decree.
Example
A city ordinance prohibited new construction within fifty metres of the riverbank to protect the flood plain.
organ
A part of the body that has a particular purpose, such as the heart or the brain; part of a plant with a particular purpose.
Example
the internal organs
organization
A group of people who form a business, club, etc. together in order to achieve a particular aim.
Example
He's the president of a large international organization.
organizer
A person who makes the arrangements for something.
Example
the organizers of the festival
orientation
A person’s basic beliefs or feelings about a particular subject.
Example
religious/political orientation
orthodoxy
Authorised or generally accepted theory, doctrine, or practice; adherence to what is conventionally accepted as correct.
Example
The researcher's findings challenged the prevailing economic orthodoxy and attracted fierce resistance from established practitioners.
oscillation
Movement back and forth at a regular speed; variation between opposing positions, states, or opinions.
Example
The policy oscillation between stimulus and austerity created uncertainty that dampened long-term investment.
ostentation
Pretentious and vulgar display of wealth, knowledge, or other possessions intended to impress.
Example
The new headquarters was designed for functionality rather than ostentation, a deliberate signal of corporate restraint.
ostracism
Exclusion from a society or group; in ancient Athens, the banishment by popular vote of a citizen considered dangerous.
Example
Whistleblowers in the sector risked professional ostracism as well as legal exposure when they spoke out.
outbreak
The sudden start of something unpleasant, especially violence or a disease.
Example
the outbreak of war
outcome
The result or effect of an action or event.
Example
The likely outcome is a compromise.
outdoor
Used, happening or located outside rather than in a building.
Example
outdoor pursuits/recreation/activities
outfit
A set of clothes that you wear together, especially for a particular occasion or purpose.
Example
She was wearing an expensive new outfit.
outing
A trip that you go on for pleasure or education, usually with a group of people and lasting no more than one day.
Example
a family outing
outlet
A shop or an organization that sells goods made by a particular company or of a particular type.
Example
The business has 34 retail outlets in this state alone.
outline
A description of the main facts or points involved in something.
Example
This is a brief outline of the events.
outlook
The attitude to life and the world of a particular person, group or culture.
Example
Travel broadens your outlook.
output
The amount of something that a person, a machine or an organization produces.
Example
Manufacturing output has increased by 8 per cent.
outrage
A strong feeling of shock and anger.
Example
The judge's remarks caused public outrage.
outside
The outer side or surface of something.
Example
The outside of the house needs painting.
outsider
A person who is not accepted as a member of a society, group, etc.
Example
Here she felt she would always be an outsider.
ovation
A sustained and enthusiastic show of appreciation from an audience, especially by applause.
Example
The ensemble received a standing ovation that lasted nearly ten minutes, compelling four curtain calls.
oven
The part of a cooker that is like a box with a door on the front, in which food is cooked or heated.
Example
Take the cake out of the oven.
oversight
Unintentional failure to notice or consider something; supervisory control or management of a process or system.
Example
Independent parliamentary oversight of the intelligence services was strengthened following the committee's damning report.
owner
A person who owns something.
Example
a dog/pet/gun owner
ownership
The fact of owning something.
Example
a growth in home ownership
oxygen
A chemical element. Oxygen is a gas that is present in air and water and is necessary for people, animals and plants to live.
Example
The patient didn't seem to be getting enough oxygen.
oxymoron
A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction for rhetorical effect.
Example
Critics dismissed "compassionate austerity" as an oxymoron that obscured the social cost of the spending cuts.
pace
The speed at which somebody/something walks, runs or moves.
Example
at a… pace, to set off at a steady/gentle/leisurely pace
pacifism
The belief that war and violence are unjustifiable and that all disputes should be resolved by peaceful means.
Example
Her pacifism was not a passive stance but an active commitment to building the institutional architecture of conflict resolution.
package
Something that is wrapped in paper or put into a thick envelope so that it can be sent by mail, carried easily, or given as a present.
Example
A large package has arrived for you.
packet
A small container made of paper or card in which goods are packed for selling.
Example
a packet of biscuits/cigarettes/crisps
pad
A thick piece of soft material that is used, for example, for cleaning or protecting something or for holding liquid.
Example
medicated cleansing pads for sensitive skin
page
One side or both sides of a sheet of paper in a book, magazine, etc.
Example
Turn to page 64.
pageant
A public entertainment or procession, typically elaborate and theatrical, celebrating a historical theme or public occasion.
Example
The coronation pageant drew millions of spectators and broadcast audiences across more than a hundred countries.
pageantry
Elaborate ceremonial display; spectacular or colourful public celebration.
Example
The pageantry of the state visit was choreographed to convey the full weight of diplomatic tradition and alliance.
pain
The feelings that you have in your body when you have been hurt or when you are ill.
Example
a cry of pain
paint
A liquid that is put on surfaces to give them a particular colour; a layer of this liquid when it has dried on a surface.
Example
white paint
painter
A person whose job is painting buildings, walls, etc.
Example
He works as a painter and decorator.
pair
Two things of the same type, especially when they are used or worn together.
Example
a pair of shoes/boots
palace
The official home of a king, queen, president, etc.
Example
Buckingham Palace
pallbearer
A person who helps to carry or formally accompany the coffin at a funeral.
Example
Six former colleagues acted as pallbearers, a quiet acknowledgement of the friendships forged across decades of difficult work.
pallor
An unhealthy pale appearance of the skin.
Example
The pallor that had settled over the patient's features since the diagnosis alarmed even the most experienced nurse on the ward.
palm
A straight tree with a mass of long leaves at the top, growing in tropical countries. There are several types of palm tree, some of which produce fruit.
Example
a date palm
palpitation
A noticeably rapid, strong, or irregular heartbeat, often due to agitation, exertion, or illness.
Example
She experienced palpitations whenever the subject of the lawsuit arose, a physical manifestation of sustained anxiety.
pan
A flat metal container with a handle, used for cooking food on top of a stove.
Example
Heat the oil in a large pan over medium heat.
panacea
A solution or remedy for all difficulties or diseases; a universal cure.
Example
Technology is frequently proposed as a panacea for social problems that are, at root, political and distributional in character.
panache
A confident, stylish, and dramatic manner of doing something; flamboyant confidence of style or manner.
Example
She delivered the closing argument with remarkable panache, holding the jury's attention throughout a two-hour presentation.
pandemonium
A state of wild and noisy disorder or confusion; uproar.
Example
The sudden resignation of the prime minister unleashed pandemonium in the chamber and across the capital's media studios.
panel
A square or rectangular piece of wood, glass or metal that forms part of a larger surface such as a door or wall.
Example
One of the glass panels in the front door was cracked.
pang
A sudden sharp pain or a painful emotion.
Example
She felt a pang of regret as she read the letter, realising only now the full significance of what she had declined.
panic
A sudden feeling of great fear that cannot be controlled and prevents you from thinking clearly.
Example
a moment of panic
panorama
An unbroken view of the whole region surrounding an observer, or a complete survey or representation of a subject.
Example
The final chapter offers a panorama of the political landscape that allows the reader to contextualise the preceding narrative.
pants
Underpants or knickers.
Example
a pair of pants
paper
The thin material that you write and draw on and that is also used for wrapping and packing things.
Example
a piece/sheet of paper
parable
A simple story used to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson, as told in the Gospels or other wisdom literature.
Example
The director described the film as a parable about institutional loyalty and the cost of moral compromise.
paradigm
A typical example or pattern of something; a model or framework within which theories are constructed in a particular discipline.
Example
Kuhn argued that scientific progress is not linear but occurs through dramatic paradigm shifts that overturn prior consensus.
paradox
A statement or situation that seems self-contradictory or absurd but may express a possible truth.
Example
The paradox of tolerance holds that a tolerant society must be intolerant of those who would destroy tolerance itself.
paragon
A person or thing regarded as a perfect example of a particular quality.
Example
Her mentors had presented her as a paragon of academic rigour, a reputation that added weight to her later criticisms of the field.
paragraph
A section of a piece of writing, usually consisting of several sentences dealing with a single subject. The first sentence of a paragraph starts on a new line.
Example
an opening/introductory paragraph
parallel
A person, a situation, an event, etc. that is very similar to another, especially one in a different place or time.
Example
These ideas have parallels in Freud's thought too.
parameter
Something that decides or limits the way in which something can be done.
Example
to set/define the parameters
paraphernalia
Miscellaneous articles, especially the equipment needed for a particular activity; personal belongings.
Example
The studio was cluttered with the paraphernalia of a working printmaker: inks, rollers, etching plates, and paper in every state of preparation.
parent
A person’s father or mother.
Example
He's still living with his parents.
pariah
An outcast; a person who is generally despised or avoided.
Example
Following the sanctions, the regime became an international pariah, denied access to global financial systems.
parity
The state or condition of being equal, especially as regards status or pay; equivalence between currencies or commodities.
Example
The union's primary demand was pay parity with workers performing equivalent roles in the public sector.
park
An area of public land in a town or a city where people go to walk, play and relax.
Example
Hyde Park
parking
The act of stopping a vehicle at a place and leaving it there for a period of time.
Example
There is no parking here between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m.
parlance
A particular way of speaking or using words, especially a way common to a particular group of people.
Example
In the parlance of contemporary philosophy of mind, "qualia" denotes the subjective, felt quality of conscious experience.
parliament
The group of people who are elected to make and change the laws of a country.
Example
The German parliament is called the ‘Bundestag’.
parody
A composition imitating a work with deliberate exaggeration for comic effect, or an imitation so poor as to seem ridiculous.
Example
The satirical sketch was a precise parody of the minister's verbal mannerisms that rendered his evasions unmistakable.
parsimony
Extreme unwillingness to spend money or use resources; extreme frugality; in science, the principle of preferring the simplest sufficient explanation.
Example
The committee's parsimony with research funding was widely blamed for the department's inability to attract and retain leading scholars.
part
Some but not all of a thing.
Example
We spent part of the time in the museum.
participant
A person who is taking part in an activity or event.
Example
The average age of study participants was 48 years.
participation
The act of taking part in an activity or event.
Example
a show with lots of audience participation
partisanship
Prejudiced, unreasoning, or fanatical allegiance to a particular cause, person, or political party.
Example
The report lamented that entrenched partisanship had rendered the legislature incapable of passing even broadly supported legislation.
partner
A person that you are doing an activity with, such as dancing or playing a game.
Example
a dance/tennis partner
partnership
The state of being a partner in business.
Example
to be in/to go into partnership
party
A social occasion, often in a person’s home, at which people eat, drink, talk, dance and enjoy themselves.
Example
a dinner/tea/cocktail party
passage
A long narrow area with walls on either side that connects one room or place with another.
Example
A dark narrow passage led to the main hall.
passenger
A person who is travelling in a car, bus, train, plane or ship and who is not driving it or working on it.
Example
airline/cruise/rail/bus passengers
passing
The process of time going by.
Example
The colour of the wood darkens with the passing of time.
passion
A very strong feeling of love, hate, anger, enthusiasm, etc.
Example
I admire the passion and commitment shown by the players.
password
A series of letters, numbers, etc. that you must type into a computer or computer system in order to be able to use it.
Example
Enter a username and password to get into the system.
past
The time that has gone by; things that happened in an earlier time.
Example
in the past, I used to go there often in the past.
pastor
A minister in charge of a Christian church or group, especially in some Nonconformist churches.
Example
He was ordained a pastor in the Lutheran Church.
patch
A small area of something, especially one which is different from the area around it.
Example
a black dog with a white patch on its back
patent
An official right to be the only person to make, use or sell a product or an invention; a document that proves this.
Example
to apply for/obtain/take out a patent on an invention
path
A way or track that is built or is made by the action of people walking.
Example
a dirt/gravel/concrete path
pathos
A quality that evokes pity, sadness, or a feeling of tenderness; an appeal to emotion in rhetoric.
Example
The closing scene derived its pathos not from melodrama but from a quiet understatement that the audience found devastating.
pathway
A track that serves as a path.
Example
They came out of the woods and onto a pathway.
patience
The ability to stay calm and accept a delay or something annoying without complaining.
Example
She has little patience with (= will not accept or consider) such views.
patient
A person who is receiving medical treatment, especially in a hospital.
Example
cancer/AIDS/heart patients
patriarch
The male head of a family or tribe; an older man who is respected as a founding figure or authority.
Example
The corporate patriarch had founded the firm in a garage and remained its dominant personality for half a century.
patron
A person who gives money and support to artists and writers.
Example
Frederick the Great was the patron of many artists.
patronage
The support given by a patron, such as financial backing or political influence; the distribution of jobs or privileges in exchange for political support.
Example
Renaissance art flourished largely because of the patronage of wealthy merchant families who competed for cultural prestige.
pattern
The regular way in which something happens or is done.
Example
changing patterns of urban life
paucity
The presence of something in only small or insufficient quantities; scarcity.
Example
A paucity of longitudinal data makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the long-term neurological effects of the drug.
pause
A period of time during which somebody stops talking or stops what they are doing.
Example
There was a long pause before she answered.
pavilion
A temporary or ornamental building used for entertainment or as a shelter in a park or at an exhibition; a wing of a building.
Example
The national pavilion at the exposition drew record attendance with its interactive installation on sustainable agriculture.
payment
The act of paying somebody/something or of being paid.
Example
What method of payment do you prefer?
peace
A situation or a period of time in which there is no war or violence in a country or an area.
Example
world peace
peak
The point when somebody/something is best, most successful, strongest, etc.
Example
Traffic reaches its peak between 8 and 9 in the morning.
peasant
(especially in the past, or in poorer countries) a farmer who owns or rents a small piece of land.
Example
peasant farmers
pedagogy
The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.
Example
Effective pedagogy adapts to the learning styles and prior knowledge of students rather than relying on a single instructional approach.
pedant
A person who is excessively concerned with minor details or correct adherence to formal rules, often at the expense of broader understanding.
Example
He was respected for his precision but tolerated with diminishing patience as a pedant who prioritised form over substance.
pedantry
Excessive concern with minor details or rules, especially in teaching; the display of learning without genuine intellectual insight.
Example
The editor's pedantry occasionally improved manuscripts but more often slowed production without commensurate benefit to the reader.
pedestal
The base on which a statue, column, or other upright structure stands; a position in which someone is greatly admired or idealised.
Example
Biography at its most rigorous removes its subjects from the pedestal and examines the complexity of actual human lives.
pedigree
The background, ancestry, or history of a person or thing; recorded lineage demonstrating pure breeding.
Example
The candidate's academic pedigree was impeccable, but the search committee wanted evidence of practical leadership experience.
peer
A person who is the same age or who has the same social status as you.
Example
She enjoys the respect of her peers.
pen
An instrument made of plastic or metal used for writing with ink (= coloured liquid for writing, etc.).
Example
an ink pen
penalty
A punishment for breaking a law, rule or contract.
Example
to impose a penalty
penchant
A strong or habitual liking for something or tendency to do something.
Example
Her penchant for understatement masked an analytical intelligence that colleagues only recognised upon close working acquaintance.
pencil
A narrow piece of wood, or a metal or plastic case, containing a black or coloured substance, used for drawing or writing.
Example
I'll get a pencil and paper.
penitence
The state of feeling or showing sorrow and regret for having done wrong; repentance.
Example
His public expression of penitence was considered sincere by some commentators and performative by others.
pennant
A long, triangular flag, especially one flown from the masthead of a ship or signalling an achievement in sport.
Example
The winning pennant was raised at dawn before a crowd that had gathered through the night in anticipation.
penny
A small British coin and unit of money. There are 100 pence in one pound (£1).
Example
He had a few pennies in his pocket.
pension
A regular payment that someone receives from the government or a former employer after they stop working, usually in retirement.
Example
My grandfather lives on a small pension.
penury
Extreme poverty; the state of being very poor.
Example
The poet died in penury, his genius unrecognised until decades after his death when critical reassessment resurrected his reputation.
people
Human beings; men, women and children.
Example
At least ten people were killed in the crash.
pepper
A powder made from dried berries (called peppercorns), used to give a hot, spicy taste to food.
Example
Season with salt and pepper
percent
An amount for every hundred.
Example
Ten percent of students failed the test.
percentage
The number, amount or rate of something, expressed as if it is part of a total that is 100; a part or share of a whole.
Example
What percentage of the population is/are overweight?
perception
An idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how you see or understand something.
Example
a campaign to change public perception of the police
performance
The act of performing a play, concert or some other form of entertainment.
Example
The performance starts at seven.
peril
Serious and immediate danger; a situation of risk or exposure to harm.
Example
The coastguard warned that those attempting the crossing in unsuitable vessels were placing themselves and their rescuers in peril.
perimeter
The continuous line forming the boundary of a closed geometric figure; the outermost limits of an area.
Example
Security was reinforced along the entire perimeter of the facility following the intelligence assessment.
period
A particular length of time.
Example
a long/an extended period
periphery
The outer limits or edge of an area or object; a position of minor importance or influence.
Example
Scholars of postcolonial literature have challenged the mapping of world literature that consigns non-Western texts to the periphery.
perjurer
A person who commits perjury; one who wilfully makes false statements under oath.
Example
The judge instructed the jury that a perjurer's testimony must be evaluated with particular scrutiny for internal consistency.
perjury
The offence of wilfully telling an untruth or making a misrepresentation under oath.
Example
The witness was subsequently charged with perjury after surveillance footage contradicted his sworn account of the meeting.
permanence
The state or quality of lasting or remaining unchanged indefinitely.
Example
The permanence of digital records has transformed archival practice but also raised urgent questions about the right to erasure.
permission
The act of allowing somebody to do something, especially when this is done by somebody in a position of authority.
Example
You must ask permission for all major expenditure.
permit
An official document that gives somebody the right to do something, especially for a limited period of time.
Example
a parking/building permit
permutation
Each of the several possible ways in which a set of things can be ordered or arranged; a combination or transformation.
Example
The analyst explored every permutation of the merger structure before settling on the configuration least likely to attract regulatory objection.
perpetrator
A person who carries out a harmful, illegal, or immoral act.
Example
International law requires states to investigate, prosecute, and punish the perpetrators of crimes against humanity.
perplexity
A state of inability to understand something; confusion; bafflement.
Example
The philosopher used perplexity not as an endpoint but as the beginning of rigorous philosophical inquiry.
perseverance
Continued effort and determination in doing something despite difficulty or delay in achieving success.
Example
Her perseverance in the face of repeated rejection is cited in every account of how the manuscript eventually came to be published.
person
A human as an individual.
Example
What sort of person would do a thing like that?
personnel
The people who work for an organization or one of the armed forces.
Example
There is a severe shortage of skilled personnel.
perspective
A particular attitude towards something; a way of thinking about something.
Example
a global perspective
pessimism
A tendency to see the worst aspect of things or believe the worst will happen; a lack of hope or confidence in the future.
Example
The prevailing pessimism about the peace talks was confounded when both parties agreed to a framework within seventy-two hours.
pet
An animal, a bird, etc. that you have at home for pleasure, rather than one that is kept for work or food.
Example
Do you have any pets?
petition
A written document signed by a large number of people that asks somebody in a position of authority to do or change something.
Example
Would you like to sign our petition against experiments on animals?
pharmacy
A store where medicinal drugs are dispensed and sold; a drugstore. The science or practice of the preparation and dispensing of medicinal drugs.
Example
I need to go to the pharmacy to pick up my prescription.
phase
A stage in a process of change or development.
Example
during the initial/final phase
phenomenon
A fact or an event in nature or society, especially one that is not fully understood.
Example
cultural/natural phenomena
philanthropist
A person who seeks to promote the welfare of others, especially by donating generously to good causes.
Example
The philanthropist endowed the university chair on the condition that it focus exclusively on neglected tropical diseases.
philistine
A person who is hostile or indifferent to culture and the arts, or who has no appreciation of their value.
Example
The reviewer dismissed the award committee as philistines who consistently privileged commercial appeal over genuine artistic merit.
philosopher
A person who studies or writes about philosophy.
Example
We studied the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
philosophy
The study of the nature and meaning of the universe and of human life.
Example
the philosophy of science
phoenix
In mythology, a unique bird that cyclically burns and is reborn from its ashes; a person or thing that has renewed itself after apparent destruction.
Example
The city rebuilt itself as a phoenix from the economic devastation of deindustrialisation, repositioning itself as a hub for digital industries.
phone
A piece of equipment for talking to people who are not in the same place as you.
Example
I have to make a phone call.
photograph
A picture that is made by using a camera that stores images in digital form or that has a film sensitive to light inside it.
Example
aerial photographs of the crash site
photographer
A person who takes photographs, especially as a job.
Example
a wedding/wildlife/fashion photographer
photography
The art, process or job of taking photographs or filming something.
Example
Her hobbies include hiking and photography.
phrase
A group of words that have a particular meaning when used together.
Example
a memorable/catchy phrase
physician
A doctor, especially one who is a specialist in general medicine and not surgery.
Example
Dr Dennett is a practicing family physician in Atlanta.
physics
The scientific study of matter and energy and the relationships between them, including the study of forces, heat, light, sound, electricity and the structure of atoms.
Example
a degree in physics
piano
A large musical instrument played by pressing the black and white keys on the keyboard. The sound is produced by small hammers hitting the metal strings inside the piano.
Example
to play the piano
picture
A painting or drawing, etc. that shows a scene, a person or thing.
Example
He likes books with lots of pictures in them.
piece
An amount of something that has been cut or separated from the rest of it; a standard amount of something.
Example
She wrote something on a small piece of paper.
piety
The quality of being religious or reverent; dutifulness in religion or morality.
Example
Her piety was expressed through sustained charitable work rather than through any public display of devotion.
pig
An animal with pink, black or brown skin, short legs, a broad nose and a short curly tail. Pigs are kept on farms for their meat (called pork) or live in the wild.
Example
a pig farmer
pile
A number of things that have been placed on top of each other.
Example
a pile of clothes/paper
pill
A small flat round piece of medicine that you swallow whole, without biting it.
Example
a vitamin pill
pilot
A person who operates the controls of an aircraft, especially as a job.
Example
an airline pilot
pin
A short thin piece of stiff wire with a sharp point at one end and a round head at the other, used especially for fastening together pieces of cloth when sewing.
Example
Use pins to keep the patch in place while you sew it on.
pink
The colour that is produced when you mix red and white together.
Example
She was dressed in pink.
pinnacle
The most successful, powerful, or impressive point; the highest point of a mountain or building.
Example
Winning the Fields Medal at thirty-two represented the pinnacle of an already remarkable mathematical career.
pioneer
A person who is the first to study and develop a particular area of knowledge, culture, etc. that other people then continue to develop.
Example
a pioneer in the field of microsurgery
pipe
A tube through which liquids and gases can flow.
Example
Both hot and cold water pipes should be properly insulated.
pipeline
A series of pipes that are usually underground and are used for carrying oil, gas, etc. over long distances.
Example
There are plans to lay a gas pipeline through the region.
pique
A feeling of irritation or resentment resulting from a slight, especially to one's pride.
Example
He resigned in a fit of pique after his proposal was amended without consultation, never fully reconciling himself to the decision.
piracy
The practice of attacking and robbing ships at sea, or the unauthorised use or reproduction of another's work.
Example
The proliferation of digital piracy forced the industry to fundamentally rethink its distribution model and pricing structure.
pirate
(especially in the past) a person on a ship who attacks other ships at sea in order to steal from them.
Example
There were reports that a pirate ship had come looking for treasure in the cove.
pit
A large deep hole in the ground.
Example
We dug a deep pit in the yard.
pitch
An area of ground specially prepared and marked for playing a sports game.
Example
a football pitch
pitfall
A hidden or unsuspected danger or difficulty; a covered pit used as a trap.
Example
The handbook was designed to guide new investors through the most common pitfalls of early-stage due diligence.
pittance
A very small or inadequate amount of money, especially as paid for work.
Example
Care workers providing essential services to vulnerable adults were being paid a pittance relative to the complexity of their responsibilities.
pity
Used to show that you are disappointed about something.
Example
a pity (that…), It's a pity that you can't stay longer.
place
A particular position, point or area.
Example
in a place, Keep your purse in a safe place.
placebo
A treatment with no active therapeutic effect, used as a control in clinical trials, or something that comforts without having real value.
Example
The trial demonstrated that the new drug outperformed the placebo by a statistically significant margin across all primary endpoints.
placement
The act of finding somebody a suitable job or place to live.
Example
a job placement service
plagiarism
The practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own without attribution.
Example
The discovery of systematic plagiarism in the doctoral thesis led to the revocation of the degree and the resignation of the supervisor.
plain
Not decorated or complicated; simple.
Example
a plain but elegant dress
plaintiff
A person who brings a case against another in a court of law; the party who initiates a lawsuit.
Example
The plaintiff sought both compensatory damages and an injunction preventing the defendant from continuing the contested practice.
plan
Something that you intend to do or achieve.
Example
Do you have any plans for the summer?
plane
A flying vehicle with wings and one or more engines.
Example
a passenger/fighter/military/private plane
planet
A large round object in space that moves around a star (such as the sun) and receives light from it.
Example
the planets of our solar system
plant
A living thing that grows in the earth and usually has a stem, leaves and roots, especially one that is smaller than a tree or bush.
Example
All plants need light and water.
plastic
A light strong material that is produced by chemical processes and can be formed into shapes when heated. There are many different types of plastic, used to make different objects and fabrics.
Example
The pipes should be made of plastic.
plasticity
The quality of being easily shaped or moulded; in neuroscience, the capacity of the brain to change and reorganise in response to experience.
Example
Research into neuroplasticity has overturned the long-held assumption that the adult brain is incapable of structural change.
plate
A flat, usually round, dish that you put food on.
Example
sandwiches on a plate
platform
The raised flat area next to the track at a train station where you get on or off the train.
Example
(British English), What platform does it go from?
platitude
A remark or statement that has been used too often to be interesting or thoughtful; a cliche.
Example
The speech drew polite applause but was widely dismissed as a sequence of platitudes that addressed none of the substantive concerns raised.
play
A piece of writing performed by actors in a theatre or on television or radio.
Example
a stage/radio play
player
A person who takes part in a game or sport.
Example
a football/tennis/chess player
playwright
A person who writes plays.
Example
The playwright spent three years researching the archive before committing a single scene of the historical drama to paper.
plea
A serious emotional request, especially for something needing action now.
Example
She made an impassioned plea for help.
pleasant
Fun, attractive, or giving pleasure.
Example
a pleasant evening/atmosphere/walk
pleasure
A state of feeling or being happy or satisfied.
Example
His eyes lit up with pleasure.
plebiscite
The direct vote of all the members of an electorate on an important public question such as a change in the constitution.
Example
The government announced that the proposed constitutional amendment would be put to a national plebiscite in the autumn.
pledge
A serious promise.
Example
a pledge of support
plethora
A large or excessive amount of something.
Example
A plethora of competing frameworks has made it difficult for practitioners to identify which approaches have the most robust empirical support.
plight
A dangerous, difficult, or otherwise unfortunate situation.
Example
The documentary brought the plight of stateless children to international attention for the first time.
plot
The series of events that form the story of a novel, play, film, etc.
Example
It's hard to follow the plot of the film.
ploy
A cunning plan or action designed to turn a situation to one's own advantage.
Example
The sudden offer of concessions was widely read as a negotiating ploy intended to forestall stronger regulatory action.
plus
An advantage; a good thing.
Example
Knowledge of French is a plus in her job.
A small piece of material like a small bag sewn into or onto a piece of clothing so that you can carry things in it.
Example
a jacket/coat/shirt/trouser pocket
podium
A small platform on which a person may stand to be seen by an audience; a lectern.
Example
She approached the podium with a composure that gave no outward indication of the pressure she was under.
poem
A piece of writing in which the words are chosen for their sound and the images they suggest, not just for their obvious meanings. The words are arranged in separate lines, usually with a repeated rhythm, and often the lines rhyme at the end.
Example
His collected poems were published after the war.
poet
A person who writes poems.
Example
an internationally renowned poet
poetry
Poems in general; poems as a genre of literature.
Example
lyric/epic poetry
poignancy
The quality of evoking a keen sense of sadness or regret; deeply affecting emotional power.
Example
The poignancy of the reunion scene derived from the actors' restraint, which amplified rather than diminished its emotional force.
point
A thing that somebody says or writes giving their opinion or stating a fact.
Example
She made several interesting points in the article.
poise
Graceful and elegant bearing in a person; a state of balance or equilibrium; composure under pressure.
Example
Her poise during the cross-examination was credited by legal observers with transforming the jury's perception of her credibility.
poison
A substance that causes death or harm if it gets into the body.
Example
Some mushrooms contain a deadly poison.
pole
A long thin straight piece of wood or metal, especially one with the end placed in the ground, used as a support.
Example
a tent pole
polemic
A strong verbal or written attack on someone or something; a controversial argument, especially one refuting or attacking a specific opinion or doctrine.
Example
The pamphlet was a sustained polemic against the monetarist orthodoxy that had dominated economic policy for two decades.
police
An official organization whose job is to make people obey the law and to prevent and solve crime; the people who work for this organization.
Example
Get out of the house or I'll call the police.
policeman
A male police officer.
Example
a plain-clothes/uniformed policeman
policy
A plan of action agreed or chosen by a political party, a business, etc.
Example
the present government’s policy on education
politician
A person whose job involves politics, especially as an elected member of parliament, etc.
Example
democratically elected politicians
politics
The activities involved in getting and using power in public life, and being able to influence decisions that affect a country or a society.
Example
world/international politics
pollution
The process of making air, water, soil, etc. dirty; the state of being dirty.
Example
air/water pollution
polyglot
A person who knows and is able to use several languages.
Example
As a polyglot fluent in seven languages, she was an invaluable asset during high-stakes multilateral negotiations.
pomp
Ceremony and splendid display, especially at a public event.
Example
The treaty was signed with considerable pomp, though observers noted the ambiguity of several key provisions.
pond
A small area of still water, especially one that is artificial.
Example
a fish pond
pop
Popular music of the sort that has been popular since the 1950s, usually with a strong rhythm and simple tunes, often contrasted with rock, soul and other forms of popular music.
Example
rock, pop and soul
populace
The people living in a particular country or area; the general public.
Example
The regime maintained power through the systematic misdirection of a largely uneducated populace.
population
All the people who live in a particular area, city or country; the total number of people who live there.
Example
One third of the world’s population consumes/consume two thirds of the world’s resources.
populism
A political approach that strives to appeal to the interests and concerns of ordinary people, especially as a contrast to an elite or established authority.
Example
Scholars have debated whether populism represents a pathology of democracy or a necessary corrective to elite detachment from ordinary concerns.
port
A town or city with a harbour, especially one where ships load and unload goods.
Example
a container/fishing ports
portent
A sign or warning that something, especially something momentous or calamitous, is likely to happen.
Example
The unexpected collapse of two regional banks was interpreted as a portent of the wider financial crisis that followed.
portfolio
A thin flat case used for carrying documents, drawings, etc.
Example
I left my portfolio on the train.
portion
One part of something larger.
Example
a substantial/significant portion of the population
portrait
A painting, drawing or photograph of a person, especially of the head and shoulders.
Example
a portrait of his wife
pose
A particular position in which someone stands or sits, often for a photograph; or an affected manner adopted to impress others.
Example
The dancer held the pose for several seconds.
position
The place where somebody/something is located.
Example
Where would be the best position for the lights?
possession
Something that you own or have with you at a particular time.
Example
Prisoners were allowed no personal possessions.
possibility
A thing that may happen or be true; the fact that something might happen or be true, but is not certain.
Example
Bankruptcy is a real possibility if sales don't improve.
post
The official system used for sending and delivering letters, packages, etc.
Example
by post, I'll send the original to you by post.
poster
A large notice, often with a picture on it, that is put in a public place to advertise something.
Example
campaign/election posters
posterity
All future generations of people; the people who will exist in the future.
Example
The decision was recorded for posterity with the explicit intention that future generations would understand the constraints under which it was made.
postmortem
An examination of a body after death to determine the cause; an analysis of an event after it has occurred to establish what went wrong.
Example
The internal postmortem identified three systemic failures that had made the data breach both foreseeable and preventable.
pot
A deep round container used for cooking things in.
Example
pots and pans
potato
A round white vegetable with a brown or red skin that grows underground as part of a plant also called a potato.
Example
Will you peel the potatoes for me?
potential
The possibility of something happening or being developed or used.
Example
the potential for change
pound
The unit of money in the UK, worth 100 pence.
Example
a ten-pound note
poverty
The state of being poor.
Example
conditions of extreme/abject poverty
power
The ability to control people or things.
Example
He has the power to make things very unpleasant for us.
practice
Doing an activity or training regularly so that you can improve your skill; the time you spend doing this.
Example
conversation practice
practitioner
A person who works in a profession, especially medicine or law.
Example
dental practitioners
pragmatism
A practical approach to problems and affairs; a philosophical tradition that evaluates theories and beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application.
Example
The negotiator's pragmatism allowed her to secure an agreement that ideological rigidity on either side would have made impossible.
pragmatist
A person who is guided by practical considerations rather than ideals or fixed principles.
Example
A committed pragmatist, he was willing to revise any position if the evidence of its failure became sufficiently clear.
praise
Words that show that you approve of and admire somebody/something.
Example
The team coach singled out two players for special praise.
prayer
Words that you say to God giving thanks or asking for help.
Example
to say your prayers
preamble
A preliminary statement in a document setting out its purpose and guiding principles; an introductory remark.
Example
The preamble to the constitution articulated the founding values to which all subsequent legislation was meant to conform.
precedence
The condition of being considered more important than someone or something else; priority in right or order.
Example
In cases of conflicting obligations, legal counsel advised that contractual commitments took precedence over internal policy guidelines.
precipice
A very steep rock face or cliff; a situation of great peril or on the edge of disaster.
Example
By the final quarter, the company stood at the precipice of insolvency, with creditors unwilling to extend further credit.
precision
The quality of being exact, accurate and careful.
Example
Her writing is imaginative but lacks precision.
precursor
A person or thing that comes before another of the same kind; a forerunner or predecessor.
Example
The 1905 revolution is widely regarded by historians as a precursor of the more decisive events of 1917.
predator
An animal that kills and eats other animals.
Example
Some animals have no natural predators.
predecessor
A person who did a job before somebody else.
Example
The new president reversed many of the policies of his predecessor.
prediction
A statement that says what you think will happen; the act of making such a statement.
Example
The results of the experiment confirmed our predictions.
predilection
A preference or special liking for something; a bias in favour of something.
Example
His predilection for archival sources over oral testimony shaped the methodological approach of his entire body of work.
predominance
The state or condition of being greater in number, influence, or importance; the possession of control or power over others.
Example
The predominance of English in global scientific publishing has raised legitimate concerns about linguistic exclusion.
preference
A greater interest in or desire for somebody/something than somebody/something else.
Example
It's a matter of personal preference.
pregnancy
The state of being pregnant.
Example
a pregnancy test
prejudice
An unreasonable dislike of or preference for a person, group, custom, etc., especially when it is based on their race, religion, sex, etc.
Example
a victim of racial prejudice
prelude
An action or event serving as an introduction to something more important; a piece of music serving as an introduction.
Example
The border incidents in the spring were, with hindsight, a prelude to the full-scale incursion that followed in summer.
premise
A statement or an idea that forms the basis for a reasonable line of argument.
Example
the basic premise of her argument
premium
An amount of money that you pay once or regularly for an insurance policy.
Example
a monthly premium of £6.25
premonition
A strong feeling that something is about to happen, especially something unpleasant; a forewarning.
Example
She could not explain the premonition of disaster that had prevented her from boarding the flight.
preparation
The act or process of getting ready for something or making something ready.
Example
food preparation
preponderance
The quality or fact of being greater in number, quantity, or importance; the civil standard of proof based on the weight of evidence.
Example
A preponderance of evidence supported the hypothesis, even though the mechanism remained poorly understood.
prerequisite
A thing that is required as a prior condition for something else to happen or exist.
Example
Political stability is a necessary prerequisite for sustainable economic development but is rarely sufficient on its own.
prerogative
A right or privilege exclusive to a particular individual or class; a faculty or property that distinguishes something.
Example
Exercising the royal prerogative to dissolve parliament without a statutory trigger had become constitutionally controversial.
prescription
An official piece of paper on which a doctor writes the type of medicine you should have, and which enables you to get it from a chemist's.
Example
The doctor gave me a prescription for antibiotics.
present
A thing that you give to somebody as a gift.
Example
What can I get him for a birthday present?
presentation
A meeting at which something, especially a new product or idea, or piece of work, is shown to a group of people.
Example
The sales manager will give a presentation on the new products.
preservation
The act of keeping something in its original state or in good condition.
Example
building/environmental/food preservation
presidency
The job of being president of a country or an organization; the period of time somebody holds this job.
Example
the current holder of the EU presidency
president
The leader of a republic, for example the US.
Example
Several presidents attended the funeral.
press
Newspapers and magazines.
Example
the local/national/foreign press
pressure
The act of trying to persuade or to force somebody to do something.
Example
The pressure for change continued to mount.
presumption
An idea that is taken to be true on the basis of probability; behaviour regarded as arrogant; in law, an assumption that something is true until proven otherwise.
Example
The presumption of innocence is a foundational principle of adversarial legal systems that the burden of proof is designed to protect.
pretence
An attempt to make something that is not the case appear true; a claim to have or be something.
Example
She abandoned any pretence of neutrality when she publicly endorsed the candidate three weeks before the vote.
pretender
A person who claims or aspires to a title or position, especially one without a valid claim; a person who pretends.
Example
Several pretenders to the vacant throne emerged, each supported by a different faction of the nobility.
pretext
A reason given in justification of a course of action that is not the real reason; a false motive put forward to conceal the true one.
Example
The audit was widely interpreted as a pretext for forcing out a chief executive who had become politically inconvenient.
prevalence
The fact of existing or being very common at a particular time or in a particular place.
Example
an increase in the prevalence of smoking among young people
prevention
The act of stopping something bad from happening.
Example
accident/crime prevention
previous
Happening or existing before the event or object that you are talking about.
Example
No previous experience is necessary for this job.
prey
An animal, a bird, etc. that is hunted, killed and eaten by another.
Example
The lion will often stalk its prey for hours.
price
The amount of money that you have to pay for something.
Example
Boat for sale, price £8 000
priest
A person who is qualified to perform religious duties and ceremonies in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox Churches.
Example
a parish priest
primacy
The fact of being pre-eminent or most important; the state of being first in rank, importance, or authority.
Example
The doctrine asserted the primacy of constitutional law over any conflicting international treaty obligations.
primary
Connected with the education of children between the ages of about five and eleven.
Example
primary teachers
prince
A male member of a royal family who is not king, especially the son or grandson of the king or queen.
Example
the royal princes
princess
A female member of a royal family who is not a queen, especially the daughter or granddaughter of the king or queen.
Example
the royal princesses
principal
The person who is in charge of a college or (in Scotland and Canada) a university.
Example
Peter Brown, principal of St John’s College
printer
A machine for printing text on paper, especially one connected to a computer.
Example
a colour printer
printing
The act of producing letters, pictures, patterns, etc. on something by pressing a surface covered with ink (= coloured liquid for printing, drawing, etc.) against it.
Example
the invention of printing
prior
Happening or existing before something else or before a particular time.
Example
Although not essential, some prior knowledge of statistics is desirable.
priority
Something that you think is more important than other things and should be dealt with first.
Example
a high/low priority
prison
A building where people are kept as a punishment for a crime they have committed, or while they are waiting for trial.
Example
She went to prison for tax evasion.
prisoner
A person who is kept in prison as a punishment, or while they are waiting for trial.
Example
The number of prisoners serving life sentences has fallen.
privacy
The state of being alone and not watched or interrupted by other people.
Example
She was longing for some peace and privacy.
privation
A state in which things considered to be necessities are lacking; hardship from the absence of basic requirements.
Example
The memoir documented years of privation following displacement, recounted with an economy of expression that made it all the more harrowing.
privatization
The act of selling a business or an industry so that it is no longer owned by the government.
Example
There were fears that privatization would lead to job losses.
privilege
A special right or advantage that a particular person or group of people has.
Example
Education should be a universal right and not a privilege.
prize
An award that is given to a person who wins a competition, race, etc. or who does very good work.
Example
She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
probability
How likely something is to happen.
Example
The probability is that prices will rise rapidly.
probity
The quality of having strong moral principles; complete and confirmed integrity.
Example
His reputation for probity was the principal reason he was appointed to chair the independent review of public procurement.
problem
A thing that is difficult to deal with or to understand.
Example
big/serious/major problems
procedure
A way of doing something, especially the usual or correct way.
Example
emergency/safety/disciplinary procedures
proceeding
The process of using a court to settle an argument or to deal with a complaint.
Example
court/legal/judicial proceedings
proceeds
The money that you receive when you sell something or organize a performance, etc.; profits.
Example
She sold her car and bought a piano with the proceeds.
process
A series of things that are done in order to achieve a particular result.
Example
the consultation/planning process
processing
The treatment of raw material, food, etc. in order to change it, preserve it, etc.
Example
the food processing industry
processor
A machine, person or company that processes things.
Example
The company is Ireland's largest dairy processor.
proclamation
A public or official announcement dealing with a matter of great importance; the action of proclaiming something officially.
Example
The proclamation of independence was greeted with celebrations in the capital and scepticism in several foreign capitals.
proclivity
A tendency to choose or do something regularly; an inclination or predisposition towards a particular thing.
Example
His proclivity for secrecy made collaboration difficult and eventually alienated the colleagues best positioned to support his research.
procurement
The action of obtaining or procuring something, especially the acquisition of goods and services by an organisation through competitive processes.
Example
The report identified systemic weaknesses in public procurement that had allowed overcharging to continue undetected for years.
prodigy
A person, especially a young one, endowed with exceptional qualities or abilities; an impressive or outstanding example of something.
Example
The chess prodigy achieved grandmaster status at thirteen, the youngest in the history of the national federation.
producer
A person, a company or a country that grows or makes food, goods or materials.
Example
French wine producers
product
A thing that is grown, produced or created, usually for sale.
Example
food/agricultural/software products
production
The process of growing or making food, goods or materials, especially large quantities.
Example
food/oil production
productivity
The rate at which a worker, a company or a country produces goods, and the amount produced, compared with how much time, work and money is needed to produce them.
Example
high/improved/increased productivity
profanity
Blasphemous or obscene language; the use of language regarded as irreverent or taboo.
Example
The broadcast regulator received hundreds of complaints about profanity during a programme screened before the watershed.
profession
A type of job that needs special training or skill, especially one that needs a high level of education.
Example
the medical/legal/teaching profession
professor
A university teacher of the highest rank.
Example
Professor (Ann) Williams
proficiency
A high degree of competence or skill; expertise.
Example
Language proficiency frameworks attempt to describe communicative competence across a standardised range of contexts and tasks.
profit
The money that you make in business or by selling things, especially after paying the costs involved.
Example
annual/pre-tax/corporate profits
profusion
An abundance or large quantity of something; a large and extravagant supply.
Example
The archive contained a profusion of correspondence that would occupy scholars for decades to come.
progeny
A descendant or the descendants of a person, animal, or plant; offspring.
Example
The ideological movement's progeny included several major intellectual traditions that had long since diverged from the founding doctrine.
prognosis
A forecast of the likely outcome of a situation, especially a medical one.
Example
The oncologist delivered a guarded prognosis, noting that early detection had meaningfully improved the range of available interventions.
programming
The process of writing and testing computer programs.
Example
programming languages
progress
The process of improving or developing, or of getting nearer to achieving or completing something.
Example
I think we're making progress.
project
A piece of work involving careful study of a subject over a period of time, done by school or college students.
Example
a history project
proliferation
Rapid increase in the number or amount of something; the spread of nuclear weapons to new countries.
Example
The proliferation of unverified information online has profoundly complicated the task of maintaining an informed citizenry.
prologue
A separate introductory section at the beginning of a book, film, or play; an event or action that leads to another.
Example
The prologue set the novel in a time sixty years after its central events, a structural choice that reframed the entire narrative.
promiscuity
The fact of having casual sexual relations frequently with different partners; or, an indiscriminate or unselective approach to something.
Example
Critics decried the promiscuity with which the agency had distributed grants, arguing that rigorous evaluation had been replaced by political favouritism.
promotion
A move to a more important job or rank in a company or an organization.
Example
The new job is a promotion for him.
prompt
A word, sign, or piece of text that helps someone remember what to say or do, especially for an actor or computer user.
Example
The actor needed a prompt to remember his next line.
proof
Information, documents, etc. that show that something is true.
Example
conclusive/definitive/scientific proof
propaganda
Ideas or statements that may be false or present only one side of an argument that are used in order to gain support for a political leader, party, etc.
Example
enemy propaganda
propagandist
A person who promotes the interests of an organisation or government through the production and dissemination of propaganda.
Example
Historians have debated whether the artist was a true believer or a skilled propagandist who privately held more complex views.
propensity
An inclination or natural tendency to behave in a particular way.
Example
The research documented a propensity among voters to attribute negative economic outcomes to incumbent governments regardless of causation.
proper
Right, appropriate or correct; according to the rules.
Example
We should have had a proper discussion before voting.
property
A thing or things that are owned by somebody; a possession or possessions.
Example
personal/stolen property
prophecy
A prediction of what will happen in the future, especially one made under divine inspiration; the faculty of prophesying.
Example
The economist's prophecy of a liquidity crisis, dismissed at the time, proved accurate to an uncomfortable degree.
proponent
A person who advocates a theory, proposal, or course of action.
Example
Leading proponents of the reform argued that incrementalism had repeatedly failed and that structural change was now unavoidable.
proportion
A part or share of a whole.
Example
Water covers a large proportion of the earth's surface.
proposal
A formal suggestion or plan; the act of making a suggestion.
Example
to submit/present/put forward a proposal
proposition
An idea or a plan of action that is suggested, especially in business.
Example
I'd like to put a business proposition to you.
proprietor
The owner of a business, hotel, newspaper, or other property.
Example
The proprietor of the independent bookshop had resisted pressure to sell for over a decade, preserving the store as a cultural landmark.
propriety
Conformity to conventionally accepted standards of behaviour or morals; the condition of being right or appropriate.
Example
Doubts about the propriety of the minister's decision led the parliamentary committee to launch a formal inquiry.
prosecution
The process of trying to prove in court that somebody is guilty of a crime (= of prosecuting them); the process of being officially charged with a crime in court.
Example
Prosecution for a first minor offence rarely leads to imprisonment.
prosecutor
A public official who charges somebody officially with a crime and prosecutes them in court.
Example
the public/state prosecutor
prospect
The possibility that something will happen.
Example
There is no immediate prospect of peace.
prosperity
The state of being successful, especially in making money.
Example
Our future prosperity depends on economic growth.
protagonist
The leading character in a drama, novel, or other work; an advocate or champion of a particular cause.
Example
The protagonist's moral ambiguity was central to the novel's argument that ethical clarity is rarely available in conditions of genuine crisis.
protection
The act of protecting somebody/something; the state of being protected.
Example
Wear clothes that provide adequate protection against the wind and rain.
protégé
A person who is guided and supported by an older and more experienced or influential person.
Example
Her protégé eventually inherited the directorship and continued the institutional reforms she had begun two decades earlier.
protein
A substance, found within all living things, that forms the structure of muscles, organs, etc. There are many different proteins and they are an essential part of what humans and animals eat to help them grow and stay healthy.
Example
essential proteins and vitamins
protest
The expression of strong dislike of or opposition to something; a statement or an action that shows this.
Example
to hold/organize/join a protest
protester
A person who makes a public protest.
Example
Thousands of protesters marched through the city.
protocol
A system of fixed rules and formal behaviour used at official meetings, usually between governments.
Example
a breach of protocol
prototype
A first or preliminary model of something from which other forms are developed or copied.
Example
The engineering team built three successive prototypes before the design was refined sufficiently for regulatory submission.
provenance
The place of origin or earliest known history of something; the background or pedigree of a person or organisation.
Example
Questions about the provenance of several works in the collection led the museum to commission an independent restitution review.
proverb
A short, well-known saying stating a general truth or piece of advice.
Example
The proverb that a chain is only as strong as its weakest link applies with particular force to supply chain security.
providence
The protective care of God or of nature as a spiritual power; timely preparation for future eventualities.
Example
Whether their survival was due to providence or to the extraordinary resourcefulness of the expedition leader remained a matter of debate.
province
One of the areas that some countries are divided into with its own local government.
Example
the provinces of Canada
provision
The act of supplying somebody with something that they need or want; something that is supplied.
Example
housing provision
proviso
A condition or qualification attached to an agreement or statement.
Example
Funding was approved with the proviso that an independent evaluation be completed within eighteen months of the programme launch.
prowess
Skill or expertise in a particular activity or field; bravery in battle.
Example
Her mathematical prowess was evident from an early age, and she solved problems that had defeated doctoral students.
proximity
Nearness in space, time, or relationship.
Example
The proximity of the two research institutions encouraged collaborative grant applications that neither could have secured independently.
proxy
A person authorised to act on behalf of another; a document authorising such representation; a figure used as a substitute measure.
Example
Voter turnout is frequently used as a proxy for the health of democratic engagement, though its limitations as a measure are well documented.
prudence
The quality of being prudent; careful management of resources; cautious and wise practical judgement.
Example
Fiscal prudence demanded that the government resist short-term electoral pressures and maintain the surplus through the growth period.
pseudonym
A fictitious name, especially one used by an author.
Example
She published under a pseudonym to separate her academic work from her commercial fiction without one compromising the reception of the other.
psyche
The human soul, mind, or spirit; in psychology, the totality of the human mind, conscious and unconscious.
Example
The trauma had embedded itself in the national psyche, surfacing in political rhetoric and artistic production for generations afterward.
psychologist
A scientist who studies and is trained in psychology.
Example
to see a psychologist
psychology
The scientific study of the mind and how it influences behaviour.
Example
clinical/educational/child/sport psychology
publication
The act of printing a book, a magazine, etc. and making it available to the public; a book, a magazine, etc. that has been published.
Example
specialist publications
publicity
The attention that is given to somebody/something by newspapers, television, etc.
Example
good/bad/adverse publicity
publishing
The profession or business of preparing and printing books, magazines, CD-ROMs, etc. and selling or making them available to the public.
Example
a job in publishing
pulpit
A raised platform in a church from which the preacher delivers a sermon; a position of authority used to express one's views.
Example
The bishop used the pulpit to deliver an unexpectedly direct critique of the government's asylum policy.
pulse
The regular beat of the heart as it sends blood around the body, that can be felt in different places, especially on the inside part of the wrist; the number of times the heart beats in a minute.
Example
a strong/weak pulse
pundit
An expert in a particular subject or field who is frequently called on to give opinions about it in public, especially in the media.
Example
The election confounded the predictions of every pundit who had treated polling averages as a reliable guide to outcome.
pungency
A sharp, strong taste or smell; the quality of being penetrating or biting in expression.
Example
The pungency of the criticism in his memoir surprised many who had known him only in his more diplomatic public persona.
punishment
An act or a way of punishing somebody.
Example
to inflict/impose/mete out punishment
punk
A type of loud and aggressive rock music popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Example
a punk band
purchase
The act or process of buying something.
Example
to make a purchase (= buy something)
purge
An abrupt or violent removal of a group of people from an organisation or place; the elimination of undesirable elements.
Example
The purge of reformist officials from the civil service effectively ended any prospect of meaningful policy change from within the system.
purist
A person who insists on absolute adherence to traditional rules or structures, especially in language, music, or art.
Example
Language purists objected to the inclusion of the loanword in the official dictionary, arguing it undermined the integrity of the native lexicon.
purple
The colour of blue and red mixed together.
Example
Her hair was dyed a bright shade of purple.
purpose
The intention, aim or function of something; the thing that something is supposed to achieve.
Example
Our campaign's main purpose is to raise money.
pursuit
The act of looking for or trying to get something.
Example
the pursuit of happiness/knowledge/profit
purveyor
A person who sells or deals in particular goods, or a person who spreads or promotes a particular idea or view.
Example
The tabloid had positioned itself as a purveyor of populist outrage, a formula that proved commercially durable if editorially questionable.
puzzle
A game, etc. that you have to think about carefully in order to answer it or do it.
Example
a crossword puzzle
quack
A person who dishonestly claims to have medical knowledge or skill; a charlatan.
Example
The investigation revealed that the practitioner was a quack who had fabricated his qualifications.
quadrant
One of four equal sections into which a plane, space, or area is divided by two axes or lines.
Example
The city planners focused redevelopment efforts on the northeastern quadrant of the urban zone.
quagmire
A complex, precarious, or inextricable situation; also, a soft boggy area of ground.
Example
The administration found itself in a political quagmire from which no obvious exit strategy existed.
qualification
An exam that you have passed or a course of study that you have successfully completed.
Example
academic/educational/professional/vocational qualifications
qualified
Having passed the exams or completed the training that are necessary in order to do a particular job; having the experience to do a particular job.
Example
a qualified teacher
quality
The standard of something when it is compared to other things like it; how good or bad something is.
Example
Improving the quality of care for nursing home residents is a priority.
qualm
A feeling of unease, doubt, or scruple about the morality or propriety of a course of action.
Example
She signed the contract without qualm, confident that the terms were entirely equitable.
quandary
A state of perplexity or uncertainty, especially when facing a difficult choice between equally undesirable options.
Example
The ethicist found herself in a genuine quandary when the two principles she held dear came into direct conflict.
quantity
An amount or a number of something.
Example
a large/small quantity of something
quarantine
A period of isolation imposed on persons or animals that may have been exposed to infectious disease.
Example
Travellers returning from the affected region were placed in quarantine for fourteen days as a precautionary measure.
quarry
A person or animal that is being hunted or pursued; also, an open excavation from which stone is extracted.
Example
The detective tracked his quarry through three countries before finally making an arrest.
quartet
A group of four people or things, especially musicians who perform together or a composition written for four performers.
Example
The string quartet delivered a breathtaking rendition of the late Beethoven piece at the chamber concert.
quaver
A trembling or wavering sound in a voice or musical note; in British music notation, an eighth note.
Example
There was a barely perceptible quaver in her voice as she delivered the eulogy for her mentor.
query
A question, especially one asking for information or expressing a doubt about something.
Example
Our assistants will be happy to answer your queries.
quest
A long search for something, especially for some quality such as happiness.
Example
the quest for happiness/knowledge/truth
question
A sentence, phrase or word that asks for information.
Example
You didn't answer my question.
questionnaire
A written list of questions that are answered by a number of people so that information can be collected from the answers.
Example
(British English), to fill in a questionnaire
quibble
A minor objection or criticism, especially one that focuses on trivial or petty details.
Example
The reviewer's only quibble with the otherwise excellent manuscript concerned a handful of citation inconsistencies.
quicksand
Loose, wet sand that yields easily to pressure and can trap and engulf anyone who steps on it; metaphorically, a treacherous or unstable situation.
Example
Pursuing that line of argument would be stepping into quicksand, as the evidence fundamentally contradicts it.
quintessence
The most perfect or typical example of a quality or class; the purest or most essential form of something.
Example
The novel is widely regarded as the quintessence of Victorian social satire.
quintet
A group of five people or things, especially musicians who perform together or a musical composition for five performers.
Example
The jazz quintet improvised fluidly around the standard, each musician contributing a distinctive voice.
quip
A witty or clever remark made quickly, often in response to a situation.
Example
His well-timed quip defused the tension in the room and drew appreciative laughter from all present.
quiver
A slight trembling movement or sound; also, a case for holding and carrying arrows.
Example
A quiver of anticipation ran through the audience as the conductor raised his baton.
quorum
The minimum number of members required to be present at a meeting for its proceedings to be valid.
Example
The chairperson adjourned the session when it became clear that a quorum could not be assembled.
quota
A limited number or amount of people or things that is officially allowed.
Example
to introduce a strict import quota on grain
quotation
A group of words or a short piece of writing taken from a book, play, speech, etc. and repeated because it is interesting or useful.
Example
a dictionary of quotations
quote
A group of words or a short piece of writing taken from a book, play, speech, etc. and repeated because it is interesting or useful.
Example
The essay was full of quotes.
rabble
A disorderly, noisy crowd of people, often used disparagingly to denote the common populace.
Example
The demagogue cynically dismissed his critics as a rabble unworthy of serious engagement.
racing
The sport of racing horses.
Example
He used to watch the racing on TV in the afternoons.
racist
A person who believes that some races of people are better than others or who has general beliefs about other people based only on their race, and may show this in violent or unfair treatment of people of other races.
Example
He's a racist.
radar
A system that uses radio waves to find the position and movement of objects, for example planes and ships, when they cannot be seen.
Example
They located the ship by radar.
radiance
The quality of emitting a warm, bright light; or the quality of being strikingly beautiful, glowing, or joyful.
Example
The radiance of her smile, even in the darkest of circumstances, inspired those around her.
radiation
Powerful and very dangerous rays that are sent out from radioactive substances.
Example
high levels/doses of radiation that damage cells
radicalism
The holding of radical political or social views; the advocacy of thorough or complete political or social reform.
Example
The historian traced the evolution of nineteenth-century radicalism from agrarian protest to organised labour movements.
radio
The activity of broadcasting programmes for people to listen to; the programmes that are broadcast.
Example
The play was written specially for radio.
rage
A feeling of violent anger that is difficult to control.
Example
His face was dark with rage.
raid
A short surprise attack on an enemy by soldiers, ships or aircraft.
Example
to conduct/launch a raid
rail
A wooden or metal bar placed around something as a barrier or to provide support.
Example
She leaned on the ship's rail and gazed out to sea.
rain
Water that falls from the sky in separate drops.
Example
There will be rain in all parts tomorrow.
ramification
A complex consequence or implication of an action or event, especially one that is unwelcome or unforeseen.
Example
The board failed to anticipate the far-reaching ramifications of its decision to restructure the pension scheme.
rancour
Bitter, long-standing resentment or ill-feeling towards someone.
Example
Despite years of professional rivalry, she addressed her opponent without rancour at the awards ceremony.
range
A variety of things of a particular type.
Example
The hotel offers a wide range of facilities.
rank
The position, especially a high position, that somebody has in a particular organization, society, etc.
Example
She was not used to mixing with people of high social rank.
ranking
The position of somebody/something on a scale that shows how good or important they are in relation to other similar people or things, especially in sport.
Example
He has improved his ranking this season from 67th to 30th.
ransom
A sum of money or other payment demanded for the release of a captive or for the return of stolen property.
Example
The kidnappers demanded an exorbitant ransom and threatened reprisals if authorities were notified.
rapacity
Aggressive greed or the instinct to seize wealth or resources without restraint.
Example
The rapacity of the colonial administration laid waste to centuries of indigenous economic structure.
rapport
A harmonious relationship characterised by mutual understanding, trust, and easy communication.
Example
The therapist spent the initial sessions establishing a rapport that would be essential for effective treatment.
rapture
A feeling of intense joy, delight, or ecstasy; a state of being carried away by overwhelming emotion.
Example
The audience listened to the final movement in a rapture that seemed to hold time in suspension.
rascal
A mischievous or dishonest person; used playfully to describe someone who is cheeky or impishly naughty.
Example
The elderly professor called his most irreverent student a rascal with unmistakable affection.
rashness
The quality of acting with excessive haste and without careful consideration of consequences.
Example
The rashness of the general's advance, unsupported by adequate intelligence, cost the army dearly.
rat
A small animal with a long tail, that looks like a large mouse, usually considered a pest (= an animal which is disliked because it destroys food or spreads disease).
Example
rat poison
rate
A measurement of the speed at which something happens.
Example
Figures published today show another fall in the rate of inflation.
ratification
The formal confirmation or validation of an agreement, treaty, or constitutional amendment by a competent authority.
Example
The treaty required ratification by two-thirds of the senate before it could enter into force.
rating
A measurement of how good, popular, important, etc. somebody/something is, especially in relation to other people or things.
Example
The poll gave an approval rating of 39 per cent for the president.
ratio
The relationship between two groups of people or things that is represented by two numbers showing how much larger one group is than the other.
Example
The school has a very high teacher-student ratio.
rationale
A set of reasons or a logical basis offered in support of a decision, course of action, or belief.
Example
The committee requested a detailed rationale for the proposed budget reallocation before voting.
rationalism
The philosophical doctrine that reason, rather than experience or faith, is the primary source of knowledge and justification.
Example
Descartes' rationalism was grounded in the conviction that certain truths could be derived through pure reasoning alone.
ravage
Widespread and severe damage or destruction, typically used in the plural.
Example
The coastal community slowly rebuilt itself after the ravages of the hurricane had subsided.
ravine
A deep, narrow gorge with steep sides, typically formed by water erosion.
Example
The search party discovered the wreckage at the base of a remote ravine, concealed by dense vegetation.
reaction
What you do, say or think as a result of something that has happened.
Example
to provoke/cause/get a reaction
reader
A person who reads, especially one who reads a lot or in a particular way.
Example
an avid reader of science fiction
reading
The activity of somebody who reads.
Example
My hobbies include reading and painting.
reality
The true situation and the problems that actually exist in life, in contrast to how you would like life to be.
Example
She refuses to face reality.
realization
The process of becoming aware of something.
Example
As realization dawned, he went pale.
realm
An area of activity, interest or knowledge.
Example
in the realm of literature
reason
A cause or an explanation for something that has happened or that somebody has done.
Example
He said no but he didn't give a reason.
reasoning
The process of thinking about things in a logical way; opinions and ideas that are based on logical thinking.
Example
What is the reasoning behind this decision?
rebel
A person who fights against the government of their country.
Example
rebel forces
rebellion
An attempt by some of the people in a country to change their government, using violence.
Example
The north of the country rose in rebellion against the government.
rebuttal
A refutation or contradiction of an argument, accusation, or piece of evidence, particularly in formal debate or law.
Example
Counsel offered a compelling rebuttal that dismantled each of the prosecution's central claims.
recalcitrance
The quality of being stubbornly uncooperative with authority or resistant to guidance.
Example
The negotiator's patience was sorely tested by the recalcitrance of the opposing delegation.
recall
The action of remembering something; or a request from a manufacturer asking customers to return a faulty product.
Example
The car company issued a recall for thousands of vehicles.
receipt
A piece of paper or an electronic document that shows that goods or services have been paid for.
Example
Can I have a receipt, please?
receiver
The part of a phone that you hold close to your mouth and ear.
Example
to pick up/lift/put down/replace the receiver
reception
The area inside the entrance of a hotel, an office building, etc. where guests or visitors go first when they arrive.
Example
Please report to reception on arrival.
recession
A difficult time for the economy of a country, when there is less trade and industrial activity than usual and more people are unemployed.
Example
How do you assess the impact of the current recession on manufacturing?
recidivism
The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend, or the habitual relapse into criminal behaviour.
Example
The study found that access to education programmes significantly reduced recidivism among released prisoners.
recipe
A set of instructions that tells you how to cook something and the ingredients (= items of food) you need for it.
Example
a recipe for chicken soup
recipient
A person who receives something.
Example
recipients of awards
reciprocity
The practice of exchanging privileges, benefits, or obligations equally between parties for mutual advantage.
Example
The trade agreement was premised on the principle of reciprocity, with each nation reducing tariffs in parallel.
recklessness
The quality of acting without regard for the consequences of one's actions; a disregard for danger or risk.
Example
The court found that the driver's recklessness had directly caused the fatal collision.
reclamation
The process of recovering or restoring land, resources, or rights that had been lost, damaged, or converted to another use.
Example
The environmental reclamation project transformed a contaminated industrial site into a thriving wetland.
recluse
A person who lives in voluntary isolation from society, avoiding social contact.
Example
The celebrated author became a recluse in her later years, refusing interviews and public appearances.
recommendation
An official suggestion about the best thing to do.
Example
to accept/reject a recommendation
reconnaissance
A preliminary survey or inspection of an area, especially to gather military or strategic information.
Example
Satellite reconnaissance confirmed the presence of the facility before any ground operation was authorised.
reconstruction
The process of changing or improving the condition of something or the way it works; the process of putting something back into the state it was in before.
Example
the reconstruction of the educational system
recording
Sound or pictures that have been recorded on computer files or on CD, DVD, video, etc.
Example
an audio recording
recourse
A source of help available in a difficult situation; the action of turning to such a source.
Example
Having exhausted all other options, the tenants had no recourse but to pursue legal action.
recovery
The process of becoming well again after an illness or injury.
Example
My father has made a full recovery from the operation.
recrimination
An accusation made in response to one from another person; mutual or counter-accusations in a dispute.
Example
The peace talks collapsed amid bitter recriminations, with each side blaming the other for the breakdown.
recruit
A person who has recently joined the armed forces or the police.
Example
the training of new recruits
recruitment
The act or process of finding new people to join a company, an organization, the armed forces, etc.
Example
the recruitment of new members
rectification
The action of putting something right; the correction of an error, fault, or injustice.
Example
The rectification of the historical record required decades of painstaking archival research.
rectitude
Morally correct behaviour or thinking; strict adherence to a code of ethical conduct.
Example
Her reputation for professional rectitude made her an ideal candidate for the role of independent arbitrator.
red
The colour of blood or fire.
Example
She often wears red.
redemption
The action of being saved from sin, error, or evil; the regaining of something lost through payment or performance.
Example
The novel charts the protagonist's long and painful search for redemption after a catastrophic moral failure.
redress
Remedy or compensation for a wrong or grievance; the righting of what is unjust.
Example
The victims sought legal redress for the harm caused by the company's negligent disposal of toxic waste.
reduction
An act of making something less or smaller; the state of being made less or smaller.
Example
Some staff received wage rises, while others experienced a reduction.
referee
The official who controls the game in some sports.
Example
He was sent off for arguing with the referee.
referendum
An occasion when all the people of a country can vote on an important issue.
Example
Switzerland decided to hold a referendum on joining the EU.
refinery
An industrial installation where crude substances, such as oil, sugar, or metal ore, are purified and processed.
Example
The oil refinery on the outskirts of town was the region's largest single employer for over a century.
reflection
An image in a mirror, on a shiny surface, on water, etc.
Example
He admired his reflection in the mirror.
reformation
The action of making major changes to something to improve it; specifically, the sixteenth-century religious movement that split Western Christianity.
Example
The party leadership promised a fundamental reformation of the tax code to address structural inequality.
refrigerator
An appliance or compartment which is artificially kept cool and used to store food and drink.
Example
Put the milk back in the refrigerator.
refuge
Shelter or protection from danger, trouble, etc.
Example
A further 300 people have taken refuge in the US embassy.
refugee
A person who has been forced to leave their country or home, because there is a war or for political, religious or social reasons.
Example
There has been a steady flow of refugees from the war zone.
refusal
An act of saying or showing that you will not do, give or accept something.
Example
the refusal of a request/an invitation/an offer
refutation
The action of proving a statement or theory to be wrong or false; a decisive counter-argument.
Example
The philosopher's refutation of the empiricist position remains one of the most cited in the literature.
regard
Attention to or thought and care for somebody/something.
Example
to have scant/little/no regard for somebody/something
regent
A person appointed to govern a state in the minority, absence, or incapacity of the monarch.
Example
The queen mother served as regent during the years before her son came of age to assume the throne.
regime
A method or system of government, especially one that has not been elected in a fair way.
Example
a fascist/totalitarian/military, etc. regime
region
A large area of land, usually without exact limits or borders.
Example
mountainous/coastal regions
register
An official list or record of names, items, etc.; a book that contains such a list.
Example
The bride and groom signed the register.
registrar
An official responsible for keeping records, especially in an academic institution, court, or government office.
Example
Students must submit their enrolment forms to the university registrar before the deadline.
registration
The act of making an official record of something/somebody.
Example
the registration of letters and parcels
regression
A return to a former or less developed state; in statistics, a measure of the relationship between variables.
Example
The regression in democratic norms alarmed international observers who had monitored the country's progress.
regret
A sad feeling because of something that has happened or something that you have done or not done.
Example
a feeling/pang/twinge of regret
regulation
An official rule made by a government or some other authority.
Example
too many rules and regulations
regulator
A person or an organization that officially controls an area of business or industry and makes sure that it is operating fairly.
Example
Ofgas, the gas industry regulator
rehabilitation
The process of helping somebody to return to a normal, healthy life after they have been in prison or very ill.
Example
a drug rehabilitation centre
reimbursement
The repayment of money spent or lost by another person or organisation on one's behalf.
Example
Employees are entitled to full reimbursement for travel expenses incurred during authorised business trips.
reincarnation
The belief that a soul, after death, is reborn into a new body; the rebirth of a soul in a new form.
Example
The doctrine of reincarnation holds that the accumulated karma of past lives shapes present circumstances.
reiteration
The action of saying or doing something again, often for emphasis or clarity.
Example
The ambassador's reiteration of her government's position left no room for ambiguity in the negotiations.
rejection
The act of refusing to accept or consider something.
Example
Her proposal met with unanimous rejection.
relationship
The way in which two people, groups or countries behave towards each other or deal with each other.
Example
a personal/working relationship
relative
A person who is in the same family as somebody else.
Example
a close/distant relative
release
The act of setting a person or an animal free; the state of being set free.
Example
The government has been working to secure the release of the hostages.
relegation
The action of assigning someone or something to a lower rank, position, or division; demotion.
Example
The club's relegation to the second division after a dismal season prompted widespread calls for reform.
relevance
A close connection with the subject you are discussing or the situation you are in.
Example
I don't see the relevance of your question.
reliability
The quality of being able to be trusted to do what somebody wants or needs.
Example
The incident cast doubt on her motives and reliability.
reliable
That can be trusted to do something well; that you can rely on.
Example
We are looking for someone who is reliable and hard-working.
relic
An object surviving from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest; a venerated object associated with a saint.
Example
The crumbling customs house was a relic of the colonial era that the city had neglected for decades.
relief
The feeling of happiness that you have when something unpleasant stops or does not happen.
Example
I felt a huge sense of relief when I heard they were all OK.
religion
The belief in the existence of a god or gods, and the activities that are connected with the worship of them, or in the teachings of a spiritual leader.
Example
Is there always a conflict between science and religion?
reluctance
Unwillingness or disinclination to do something; a hesitancy arising from doubt or aversion.
Example
His reluctance to commit to a timeline frustrated the project managers, who needed certainty to proceed.
remainder
The people, things or time that remain.
Example
I kept some of his books and gave away the remainder.
remains
The parts of something that are left after the other parts have been used, eaten, removed, etc.
Example
She fed the remains of her lunch to the dog.
remark
Something that you say or write which expresses an opinion, a thought, etc. about somebody/something.
Example
to make a remark
remedy
A way of dealing with or improving an unpleasant or difficult situation.
Example
When the reservoir becomes blocked, the only remedy lies in cleaning the entire system.
remembrance
The action of remembering or honouring someone or something from the past; a memory or recollection.
Example
The annual ceremony of remembrance drew thousands to the memorial in the heart of the capital.
reminder
Something that makes you think about or remember somebody/something, that you have forgotten or would like to forget.
Example
The sheer size of the cathedral is a constant reminder of the power of religion.
remission
A temporary or permanent decrease in the severity of a disease; also, the cancellation of a debt or punishment.
Example
After two years of treatment, the oncologist confirmed that the cancer was in full remission.
remnant
A small remaining quantity of something; a part or trace of something left after the greater portion has gone.
Example
A few scattered ruins are the sole remnant of what was once a prosperous Bronze Age settlement.
remorse
Deep regret or guilt for a wrong committed; a painful sense of culpability for past conduct.
Example
The defendant expressed genuine remorse throughout the trial, acknowledging the gravity of his actions.
removal
The act of taking somebody/something away from a particular place.
Example
Clearance of the site required the removal of a number of trees.
remuneration
Payment or compensation received for work or services; reward for effort or loss.
Example
The union negotiated a substantial increase in remuneration for shift workers in hazardous conditions.
renaissance
A revival or renewed interest in something; specifically, the cultural and intellectual flowering of Europe from the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries.
Example
The city's cultural renaissance was driven by a new generation of artists, architects, and civic patrons.
rendition
A performance or interpretation of a dramatic role, piece of music, or artistic work; also, the act of delivering a person to another jurisdiction.
Example
Her rendition of the aria was so moving that the audience remained silent for several seconds after she finished.
renegade
A person who deserts and betrays an organisation, country, or set of principles; a rebel or outlaw.
Example
The memoir was written by a renegade intelligence officer who had broken with the agency over ethical concerns.
renown
The condition of being known or talked about by many people on account of notable achievements; fame.
Example
The institution attracted scholars of international renown to its prestigious annual symposium.
rental
The amount of money that you pay to use something for a particular period of time.
Example
Telephone charges include line rental.
reparation
The action of making amends for a wrong; compensation exacted from a defeated nation for war damage.
Example
The debate over reparations for historical injustices remains one of the most contested in contemporary politics.
repatriation
The return of a person to their country of origin; also, the return of assets or cultural objects to their country of origin.
Example
The museum agreed to the repatriation of the artefacts after prolonged diplomatic negotiations.
repentance
The action of sincerely regretting and wishing to atone for past wrongdoing; genuine contrition.
Example
The community's forgiveness was conditional on the perpetrator demonstrating authentic repentance and accountability.
repercussion
An unintended consequence of an event or action, especially one that is indirect or far-reaching.
Example
The financial crisis had repercussions that reverberated through global markets for more than a decade.
repertoire
The body of works that a performer or company is prepared to perform; a stock of techniques or skills regularly used.
Example
The conductor expanded the orchestra's repertoire to include neglected works by underrepresented composers.
replacement
The act of replacing one thing with another, especially something that is newer or better.
Example
the replacement of worn car parts
report
A written or spoken account of an event, especially one that is published or broadcast.
Example
Are these news reports true?
reporter
A person who collects and reports news for newspapers, radio or television.
Example
He leaked the story to a news reporter.
reporting
The presenting of and writing about news on television and radio, and in newspapers.
Example
accurate/balanced/objective reporting
repository
A place, building, or receptacle where things are stored or may be found; a source of abundant information.
Example
The national archive serves as the central repository for official government documents dating back three centuries.
representation
The act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something.
Example
the negative representation of single mothers in the media
representative
A person who has been chosen to speak or vote for somebody else or for a group of people, or to take the place of somebody else.
Example
Our elected representatives in government should be doing something about this.
repression
The exercise of authoritarian force to suppress or restrain people or their freedoms; in psychology, the unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts.
Example
The regime's systematic repression of dissent drew condemnation from human rights organisations worldwide.
reprieve
A cancellation or postponement of a punishment; a temporary relief from difficulty or distress.
Example
The governor granted a last-minute reprieve, halting the execution pending a review of new evidence.
reprimand
A formal or official expression of disapproval or rebuke, especially one given by a person in authority.
Example
The officer received a formal reprimand for his conduct during the incident and was suspended for two weeks.
reprisal
An act of retaliation against an enemy or wrongdoer; the infliction of harm in return for harm received.
Example
Witnesses to the atrocities feared reprisal and were reluctant to testify before the tribunal.
reproduction
The act or process of producing babies, young animals or plants.
Example
sexual reproduction
republic
A country that is governed by a president and politicians elected by the people and where there is no king or queen.
Example
newly independent republics
repudiation
The refusal to accept or be associated with something; the denial of the truth or validity of a claim.
Example
The minister issued a categorical repudiation of the allegations, calling them fabrications without evidential basis.
repugnance
Intense disgust or aversion; a strong feeling that something is offensive or morally unacceptable.
Example
She could not conceal her repugnance at the callousness with which the decision had been made.
reputation
The opinion that people have about what somebody/something is like, based on what has happened in the past.
Example
to have a good/bad reputation
repute
The general opinion held about someone or something; reputation, especially a good one.
Example
The clinic had a repute for excellence that drew patients from across the region.
request
The action of asking for something formally and politely; a thing that you formally ask for.
Example
a request for information
requirement
Something that you need or want.
Example
the basic requirements of life
requisite
Something that is necessary or indispensable as a condition or requirement for a particular purpose.
Example
Intellectual honesty is the fundamental requisite for productive academic dialogue.
requisition
An official order requiring the use or supply of something, especially by a government or military authority.
Example
The army issued a requisition for all available vehicles in the district to support the relief effort.
rescue
The act of saving somebody/something from a dangerous or difficult situation; the fact of being saved.
Example
We had given up hope of rescue.
research
A careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or information about it.
Example
scientific/medical/academic research
researcher
A person who studies something carefully and tries to discover new facts about it.
Example
European researchers say olive oil could help prevent cancer.
reservation
An arrangement for a seat on a plane or train, a room in a hotel, etc. to be kept for you.
Example
I'll call the restaurant and make a reservation.
resident
A person who lives in a particular place or who has their home there.
Example
a resident of the United States
residue
A small amount of something that remains at the end of a process.
Example
pesticide residues in fruit and vegetables
resignation
The act of giving up your job or position; the occasion when you do this.
Example
a letter of resignation
resilience
The capacity to recover quickly from difficulties or adversity; toughness; also, the ability of a substance to spring back into shape.
Example
The community's resilience in the aftermath of the disaster was a testament to its deep social cohesion.
resistance
Dislike of or opposition to a plan, an idea, etc.; the act of refusing to obey.
Example
As with all new ideas it met with resistance.
resolve
Firm determination to do something, even when it is difficult.
Example
Despite the setbacks, her resolve never wavered.
resonance
The quality of evoking a deep response; the reinforcement or prolongation of sound by vibration; wider significance or meaning.
Example
The speech had a resonance that went far beyond the immediate audience, touching on universal human concerns.
resort
A place where a lot of people go on holiday.
Example
seaside/mountain resorts
respect
A strong feeling of approval of somebody/something because of their good qualities or achievements.
Example
I have the utmost respect for her and her work.
respite
A short period of rest or relief from something difficult or unpleasant; a temporary delay or pause.
Example
The ceasefire offered a brief respite from the violence, allowing aid organisations to deliver supplies.
response
A spoken or written answer.
Example
She made no response.
responsibility
A duty to deal with or take care of somebody/something, so that you may be blamed if something goes wrong.
Example
to be in a position of responsibility
restitution
The restoration of something lost or stolen to its proper owner; compensation for injury or loss.
Example
The court ordered restitution to the victims amounting to several million pounds in lost assets.
restoration
The work of repairing and cleaning an old building, a painting, etc. so that its condition is as good as it originally was.
Example
restoration work
restraint
A rule, a fact, an idea, etc. that limits or controls what people can do.
Example
The government has imposed export restraints on some products.
restriction
A rule or law that limits what you can do or what can happen.
Example
import/speed/travel restrictions
result
A thing that is caused or produced because of something else.
Example
And did your intervention produce the desired result?
resurgence
An increase or revival of something after a period of little activity, popularity, or occurrence.
Example
Public health officials warned of a potential resurgence of the virus during the winter months.
resurrection
The act of rising from the dead or returning to life; a revival or restoration of something after dormancy or destruction.
Example
The resurrection of the old rail line as a heritage tourist route breathed new life into the region's economy.
retail
The selling of goods to the public, usually through shops.
Example
The recommended retail price is £9.99.
reticence
The quality of being reserved, restrained, or reluctant to speak or reveal one's thoughts.
Example
Her reticence on the subject of her early life only deepened the curiosity of those who admired her work.
retort
A sharp, witty, or cutting reply made in response to a criticism or accusation.
Example
His retort was so precisely aimed that his adversary was left momentarily speechless.
retraction
The withdrawal of a statement, claim, or piece of writing that was previously made, often because it was inaccurate.
Example
The newspaper published a prominent retraction after the original story was found to contain factual errors.
retribution
Punishment inflicted on someone as vengeance for a wrong or criminal act; deserved punishment.
Example
The survivors demanded retribution for the atrocities committed during the conflict.
retrospection
The action of looking back on or reviewing past events or situations; reflection on one's own history.
Example
His memoir was an exercise in honest retrospection, sparing neither himself nor his contemporaries from scrutiny.
return
The action of arriving in or coming back to a place that you were in before.
Example
A week had passed since their return to Geneva.
revelation
A fact that people are made aware of, especially one that has been secret and is surprising.
Example
startling/sensational revelations about her private life
revelry
Lively and noisy festivities, especially involving drinking and celebration; boisterous merrymaking.
Example
The victorious team and their supporters gave themselves over to revelry that continued well into the night.
reverberation
The continuation of a sound after the original source has stopped, due to reflection; a series of consequences or reactions.
Example
The reverberation of the explosion was felt in buildings several kilometres from the blast site.
reverie
A state of being pleasantly absorbed in one's own thoughts; a daydream.
Example
She was lost in reverie when the train arrived at her station, nearly missing her stop.
revision
A change or set of changes to something.
Example
He made some minor revisions to the report before printing it out.
revisionism
The policy or practice of revising accepted historical or doctrinal views, often in a controversial manner.
Example
The scholar was accused of revisionism for challenging the orthodox account of the treaty's origins.
revival
An improvement in the condition or strength of something.
Example
the revival of trade
revocation
The official cancellation of a decree, decision, licence, or privilege.
Example
The revocation of the broadcaster's licence followed an independent inquiry into editorial standards.
reward
A thing that you are given because you have done something good, worked hard, etc.
Example
a financial reward
rhetoric
Speech or writing that is intended to influence people, but that is not completely honest or sincere.
Example
the rhetoric of political slogans
rhythm
A strong regular repeated pattern of sounds or movements.
Example
to dance to the rhythm of the music
rice
Short, narrow white or brown grain grown on wet land in hot countries as food; the plant that produces this grain.
Example
a grain of rice
rifle
A gun with a long barrel which you hold to your shoulder to fire.
Example
a hunting rifle
rift
A crack, split, or break in something; a serious disagreement that causes a division between people or groups.
Example
The scandal opened a rift within the party that proved impossible to heal before the election.
righteousness
The quality of being morally right or justifiable; adherence to ethical and religious principles.
Example
The prophet spoke with a righteousness that his followers found both inspiring and occasionally intimidating.
rigmarole
A long, complicated, and tedious process or series of tasks; a confusing or rambling account.
Example
Obtaining planning permission involved a rigmarole of forms, inspections, and committee hearings that took months.
rigour
The quality of being extremely thorough, precise, and careful; strict exactness in method or procedure.
Example
The dissertation was praised for the intellectual rigour with which the author engaged opposing viewpoints.
ring
A piece of jewellery that you wear on your finger, consisting of a round band of gold, silver, etc., sometimes decorated with precious stones.
Example
a gold ring
ringleader
A person who leads others in disruptive, illegal, or mischievous activities; the chief instigator of a group.
Example
Investigators identified the ringleader of the fraud scheme as a former compliance officer within the firm.
riot
A situation in which a group of people behave in a violent way in a public place, often as a protest.
Example
One prison guard was killed when a riot broke out in the jail.
risk
The possibility of something bad happening at some time in the future; a situation that could be dangerous or have a bad result.
Example
The health risks are very low.
rite
A formal ceremonial act or procedure, especially one prescribed by religion or custom.
Example
The initiation rite marked the young person's transition into full membership of the community.
ritual
A series of actions that are always performed in the same way, especially as part of a religious ceremony.
Example
religious rituals
rival
A person, company or thing that competes with another in sport, business, etc.
Example
The two teams have always been rivals.
river
A natural flow of water that continues in a long line across land to the sea.
Example
Eventually we came to the mouth of the River Thames.
road
A hard surface built for vehicles to travel on.
Example
a main/major/minor road
robbery
The crime of stealing money or goods from a bank, shop, person, etc., especially using violence or threats.
Example
armed robbery (= using a gun, knife, etc.)
rock
The hard solid material that forms part of the surface of the earth and some other planets.
Example
They drilled through several layers of rock to reach the oil.
rocket
A spacecraft in the shape of a tube that is driven by a stream of gases let out behind it when fuel is burned inside.
Example
a space rocket
rod
A long straight piece of wood, metal or glass.
Example
The concrete is reinforced with steel rods.
rogue
A dishonest or mischievous person; something behaving in an erratic or unpredictable manner.
Example
The diplomat went rogue, acting contrary to his government's instructions in the final stages of talks.
roll
A small loaf of bread for one person.
Example
Soup and a roll: £3.50
romance
An exciting, usually short, relationship between two people who are in love with each other.
Example
a holiday romance
roof
The structure that covers or forms the top of a building or vehicle.
Example
a flat/sloping/pitched roof
rookie
A person who is new to an organization or activity.
Example
He is a rookie in the police force.
room
A part of a building that has its own walls, floor and ceiling and is usually used for a particular purpose.
Example
I heard him enter the room.
rope
Very strong thick string made by twisting thinner strings, wires, etc. together.
Example
The rope broke and she fell 50 metres onto the rocks.
rose
A flower with a sweet smell that grows on a bush with thorns (= sharp points) on its stems.
Example
a bunch of red roses
roster
A list or plan showing turns of duty or leave among those of a group.
Example
Check the work roster to see when you are scheduled.
rostrum
A raised platform on which a person stands to make a public speech or conduct an orchestra.
Example
The senator approached the rostrum with a gravity that signalled the importance of the address to follow.
rotation
The action of an object moving in a circle around a central fixed point.
Example
the daily rotation of the earth on its axis
rout
A disorderly retreat or flight following a decisive defeat; an overwhelming victory.
Example
What had begun as an orderly withdrawal quickly became a rout as communication between units broke down.
route
A way that you follow to get from one place to another.
Example
Which is the best route to take?
routine
The normal order and way in which you regularly do things.
Example
to settle/get/fall into a routine
row
A line of people or things arranged next to each other.
Example
We sat in the front row at the concert.
rub
The action of rubbing something; or a difficulty or problem (especially in the phrase "the rub").
Example
She gave the lamp a quick rub with a soft cloth.
rubber
A strong substance that can be stretched and does not allow liquids to pass through it, used for making tyres, boots, etc. It is made from the liquid (= sap) inside a tropical plant or is produced using chemicals.
Example
a ball made of rubber
rubric
A set of instructions or a heading with which something is classified; a standard or criterion for evaluation.
Example
The assessment rubric made clear the weighting assigned to each component of the written submission.
ruckus
A noisy disturbance or commotion; a disruptive altercation.
Example
The unexpected announcement caused a ruckus in the press gallery that the chair struggled to bring to order.
rudiment
A basic, elementary principle or skill; an incompletely developed form of something.
Example
The first year of training covers the rudiments of surgical technique before students progress to clinical practice.
ruin
The state or process of being destroyed or severely damaged.
Example
A large number of churches fell into ruin after the revolution.
ruination
The action of causing something to be ruined; the state of being ruined or destroyed.
Example
The ruination of the harvest by the early frost brought financial hardship to the entire farming community.
rule
A statement of what may, must or must not be done in a particular situation or when playing a game.
Example
She laid down strict rules for her tenants, including prompt payment of rent.
ruling
An official decision made by somebody in a position of authority, especially a judge.
Example
The court will make its ruling on the case next week.
rumination
Deep or lengthy consideration of a subject; in psychology, the obsessive focus on distressing thoughts.
Example
Her rumination on the events of that evening had consumed her for years without yielding any resolution.
rumor
A story or statement in general circulation without confirmation or certainty as to facts.
Example
There is a rumor that the company is going to close.
runner
A person or an animal that runs, especially one taking part in a race.
Example
a long-distance/cross-country/marathon runner
running
The action or sport of running.
Example
to go running
ruse
A stratagem or trick intended to deceive someone; a cunning plan or ploy.
Example
The apparent surrender was a ruse to draw the garrison out from behind its defensive fortifications.
rush
A sudden strong movement or action.
Example
Shoppers made a rush for the exits.
sabotage
Deliberate destruction or obstruction of an operation, plan, or system.
Example
The investigation concluded that the power failure was the result of industrial sabotage.
saboteur
A person who deliberately destroys or obstructs something, especially for political or military purposes.
Example
The saboteurs had targeted the railway lines to disrupt the supply of munitions.
sacrifice
The fact of giving up something important or valuable to you in order to get or do something that seems more important; something that you give up in this way.
Example
The makers of the product assured us that there had been no sacrifice of quality.
sacrilege
The violation or misuse of something regarded as sacred or highly valued.
Example
To many scholars, the proposed redevelopment of the ancient library was an act of sacrilege.
safety
The state of being safe and protected from danger or harm.
Example
in safety, a place where children can play in safety
saga
A long, involved account of a series of events or a prolonged, complicated sequence of incidents.
Example
The legal saga over the disputed estate dragged on for nearly two decades.
sage
A profoundly wise person, especially one revered for their depth of knowledge and sound judgment.
Example
Villagers would travel great distances to seek counsel from the sage who lived in the mountains.
sailing
The sport or activity of travelling in a boat with sails.
Example
to go sailing
sailor
A person who works on a ship as a member of the crew.
Example
a crew of two officers and 13 sailors
saint
A person that the Christian Church recognizes as being very holy, because of the way they have lived or died.
Example
St John
sainthood
The state or condition of being a saint; canonization by a religious authority.
Example
The Vatican formally conferred sainthood upon the missionary at a ceremony attended by thousands.
salad
A mixture of raw vegetables such as lettuce, tomato and cucumber, usually served with other food as part of a meal.
Example
All main courses come with salad or vegetables.
salary
Money that employees receive for doing their job, especially professional employees or people working in an office, usually paid every month.
Example
an annual salary of $40 000
sale
An act or the process of selling something.
Example
regulations governing the sale of alcoholic beverages
salt
A white substance that is added to food to make it taste better or to preserve it. Salt is obtained from mines and is also found in seawater. It is sometimes called common salt to show that it is different from other chemical salts. Its chemical name is sodium chloride.
Example
Pass the salt, please.
salutation
A gesture or utterance made as a greeting or acknowledgment of another person.
Example
He opened the letter with an unusually formal salutation that set a cold tone for what followed.
salvation
Preservation or deliverance from harm, ruin, or loss; in religious contexts, deliverance from sin and its consequences.
Example
For many of the refugees, emigration represented their only hope of salvation from the ongoing conflict.
sample
A number of people or things taken from a larger group and used in tests to provide information about the group.
Example
The interviews were given to a random sample of students.
sanction
An official order that limits trade, contact, etc. with a particular country, in order to make it do something, such as obeying international law.
Example
Trade sanctions were imposed against any country that refused to sign the agreement.
sanctity
The quality of being sacred, holy, or inviolable; ultimate importance warranting respect.
Example
The tribunal upheld the sanctity of the contract, rejecting all attempts to nullify its terms.
sanctuary
A place of refuge and safety; a nature reserve where animals are protected from hunting.
Example
The remote monastery served as a sanctuary for dissidents seeking shelter from political persecution.
sand
A substance that consists of very small fine grains of rock. Sand is found on beaches, in deserts, etc.
Example
a grain of sand
sandwich
Two slices of bread, often spread with butter, with a layer of meat, cheese, etc. between them.
Example
a ham/tuna/egg sandwich
sarcasm
The use of irony to mock or convey contempt, typically in a cutting or bitter manner.
Example
His sarcasm was so subtle that newcomers to the department often took his remarks at face value.
satellite
An electronic device that is sent into space and moves around the earth or another planet. It is used for communicating by radio, television, etc. and for gathering information.
Example
a weather/communications/spy satellite
satire
The use of humour, irony, or exaggeration to expose and criticise people's stupidity or vices, especially in the context of politics.
Example
Swift's "A Modest Proposal" remains one of the most devastating works of political satire in the English language.
satirist
A writer or performer who uses satire to critique society, politics, or human nature.
Example
As a sharp-tongued satirist, she was simultaneously celebrated by reformers and loathed by those in power.
satisfaction
The good feeling that you have when you have achieved something or when something that you wanted to happen does happen; something that gives you this feeling.
Example
to gain/get/derive satisfaction from something
Saturday
The day of the week after Friday and before Sunday.
Example
It's Saturday today, isn't it?
sauce
A thick liquid that is eaten with food to add taste to it.
Example
tomato/cranberry/chilli sauce
savagery
Extreme cruelty or brutality; uncivilised or fierce behaviour.
Example
The historian documented the savagery of the colonial regime with meticulous archival evidence.
savant
A person of exceptional learning; a scholar, or an individual with remarkable abilities in a specific field despite limitations in others.
Example
The young savant could perform complex mathematical calculations faster than any computer available at the time.
saving
An amount of something such as time or money that you do not need to use or spend.
Example
Buy three and make a saving of 55p.
scaffold
A temporary framework used to support workers during construction or repair; historically, a raised platform for public executions.
Example
The restoration team erected a scaffold around the cathedral's exterior to facilitate the cleaning of its stonework.
scale
The size or extent of something, especially when compared with something else.
Example
on a … scale, They entertain on a large scale (= they hold expensive parties with a lot of guests).
scan
A medical examination using special equipment to produce an image of the inside of the body.
Example
The doctor ordered a brain scan after the accident.
scandal
Behaviour or an event that people think is morally or legally wrong and causes public feelings of shock or anger.
Example
a series of sex scandals
scapegoat
A person or group bearing the blame for the faults or failures of others.
Example
The manager was used as a scapegoat for the company's catastrophic losses, though the board bore equal responsibility.
scarcity
The state of being in short supply; insufficiency of a resource relative to demand.
Example
Economists argue that scarcity is the fundamental problem underlying all allocation decisions.
scenario
A description of how things might happen in the future.
Example
Let me suggest a possible scenario.
scene
The place where something happens, especially something unpleasant.
Example
the scene of the accident/crime/crash
schedule
A plan that lists all the work that you have to do and when you must do each thing.
Example
I have a hectic schedule for the next few days.
schism
A split or division between strongly opposed sections or parties, especially in a religious or political organisation.
Example
The theological dispute deepened into a schism that permanently divided the denomination into two factions.
scholar
A person who knows a lot about a particular subject because they have studied it in detail.
Example
a classical scholar
school
A place where children go to be educated.
Example
My brother and I went to the same school.
science
Knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural and physical world, based on facts that you can prove, for example by experiments.
Example
new developments in science and technology
scientist
A person who studies one or more of the natural sciences (= for example, physics, chemistry or biology).
Example
a research scientist
scion
A descendant of a notable family; a young shoot cut from a plant for grafting.
Example
As the scion of a distinguished legal dynasty, she felt the weight of her family's expectations from an early age.
scope
The opportunity or ability to do or achieve something.
Example
There's still plenty of scope for improvement.
score
The number of points, goals, etc. scored by each player or team in a game or competition.
Example
a high/low score
scoundrel
A dishonest or unscrupulous person; a rogue or villain.
Example
The pamphlet denounced the minister as a scoundrel who had enriched himself at the public's expense.
scourge
A person or thing that causes great trouble or suffering; a whip used as an instrument of punishment.
Example
Corruption has long been the scourge of public institutions in that region.
screen
The flat surface at the front of a television, computer, or other electronic device, on which you see pictures or information.
Example
a computer screen
screening
The act of showing a film or television programme.
Example
This will be the movie's first screening in this country.
screw
A thin pointed piece of metal like a nail with a raised spiral line (called a thread) along it and a line or cross cut into its head. Screws are turned and pressed into wood, metal, etc. with a screwdriver in order to fasten two things together.
Example
One of the screws is loose.
script
A written text of a play, film, broadcast, talk, etc.
Example
That line isn't in the original script.
scruple
A feeling of doubt or hesitation with regard to the morality or propriety of a course of action.
Example
She had no scruples about revealing the confidential information if it served her interests.
scrutiny
Careful and complete examination.
Example
Her argument doesn't really stand up to scrutiny.
sculpture
A work of art that is a solid figure or object made by carving or shaping wood, stone, clay, metal, etc.
Example
a marble sculpture of Venus
seal
An official design or mark, stamped on a document to show that it is real and carries the authority of a particular person or organization.
Example
The letter bore the president's seal.
seat
A place where you can sit, for example a chair.
Example
She sat back in her seat.
secession
The action of withdrawing formally from membership of a federation, union, or political entity.
Example
The province's declaration of secession triggered a constitutional crisis that lasted several years.
seclusion
The state of being private and away from other people; isolation.
Example
After years in the public eye, the author retreated into seclusion to complete her final novel.
second
A unit for measuring time. There are 60 seconds in one minute.
Example
in… seconds, She can run 100 metres in just over 11 seconds.
secondary
Connected with teaching children of 11–18 years.
Example
secondary teachers
secret
Something that is known about by only a few people and not told to others.
Example
Can you keep a secret?
secretariat
A permanent administrative office or department, especially in a governmental or international organisation.
Example
All formal communications must be directed through the secretariat before being circulated to member states.
secretary
A person who works in an office, working for another person, dealing with mail and phone calls, keeping records, arranging meetings with people, etc.
Example
a legal/medical secretary
section
Any of the parts into which something is divided.
Example
That section of the road is still closed.
security
The activities involved in protecting a country, building or person against attack, danger, etc.
Example
national/homeland security (= the defence of a country)
sediment
Matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid; material deposited by water, wind, or glaciers.
Example
Layers of sediment in the lake bed provided scientists with a detailed record of past climate conditions.
seed
The small hard part produced by a plant, from which a new plant can grow.
Example
a packet of wild flower seeds
seeker
A person who is trying to find or get the thing mentioned.
Example
an attention/a publicity seeker
seer
A person who is supposed to be able to foresee the future; a prophet or visionary.
Example
The ancient seer's cryptic prophecies were interpreted anew by each successive generation.
segment
A part of something that is separate from the other parts or can be considered separately.
Example
She cleaned a small segment of the painting.
segregation
The enforced separation of different groups of people, especially on grounds of race, gender, or religion.
Example
The landmark court ruling declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
seizure
The action of taking something by force or legal authority; a sudden attack of illness, especially an epileptic convulsion.
Example
The authorities ordered the seizure of assets linked to the money laundering operation.
selection
The process of choosing somebody/something from a group of people or things, usually according to a system.
Example
She took a long time to make her selection.
semantics
The branch of linguistics concerned with meaning; the meaning of words, phrases, or texts.
Example
The dispute over the contract's interpretation was ultimately a matter of semantics rather than substance.
semblance
The outward appearance or apparent form of something, especially when the reality is different.
Example
After months of turmoil, the organisation finally managed to restore some semblance of order.
seminar
A class at a university or college when a small group of students and a teacher discuss or study a particular topic.
Example
Teaching is by lectures and seminars.
senate
The upper house of the legislature in countries like the United States and Australia.
Example
The bill was passed by the Senate.
senator
A member of a senate.
Example
Senator McCarthy
senility
The condition of being senile; the mental and physical deterioration associated with old age.
Example
His erratic decisions during the final years of his reign were later attributed to advancing senility.
sensation
A feeling that you get when something affects your body.
Example
a tingling/burning sensation
sense
An understanding about something; an ability to judge something.
Example
One of the most important things in a partner is a sense of humour (= the ability to find things funny or make people laugh).
sensitivity
The ability to understand other people’s feelings.
Example
sensitivity to the needs of children
sentence
A set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb. In written English sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop/period (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).
Example
Does the sentence contain an adverb?
sentiment
A feeling or an opinion, especially one based on emotions.
Example
the spread of nationalist sentiments
separation
The act of separating people or things; the state of being separate.
Example
the state’s eventual separation from the federation
September
The 9th month of the year, between August and October.
Example
She was born in September.
sequel
A published, broadcast, or recorded work that continues the story of an earlier one; a consequence or result.
Example
The sequel to her debut novel surpassed all commercial expectations and cemented her literary reputation.
sequence
A set of events, actions, numbers, etc. which have a particular order and which lead to a particular result.
Example
He described the sequence of events leading up to the robbery.
sequestration
The action of taking legal possession of assets until a debt or claim is settled; enforced isolation.
Example
The court ordered the sequestration of the company's accounts pending the outcome of the fraud trial.
serenity
The state of being calm, peaceful, and untroubled.
Example
The monastery gardens were designed to cultivate a sense of serenity conducive to contemplation.
serfdom
The condition of a serf; a feudal system in which labourers were bound to the land and owned by a lord.
Example
The abolition of serfdom in the nineteenth century radically transformed the social and economic structure of rural Russia.
servant
A person who works in another person’s house, and cooks, cleans, etc. for them.
Example
a domestic servant
service
A system that provides something that the public needs, organized by the government or a private company.
Example
the ambulance/bus/postal service
servility
Excessive willingness to serve or please others; obsequiousness.
Example
His promotion owed more to servility towards senior management than to any demonstrable merit.
servitude
The state of being a slave or completely subject to someone more powerful; compulsory service.
Example
The international treaty explicitly prohibits all forms of forced servitude.
session
A period of time that is spent doing a particular activity.
Example
a training/practice session
setting
An environment where something is located; the place at which something happens.
Example
a rural/an ideal/a beautiful/an idyllic setting
settlement
An official agreement that ends an argument between two people or groups.
Example
to negotiate a peace settlement
settler
A person who goes to live in a new country or region.
Example
Most of the settlers came from England.
setup
The way in which something is arranged or organized.
Example
The new office has an open-plan setup.
severance
The action of ending a connection or relationship; a sum of money paid to an employee on dismissal.
Example
The executive negotiated a substantial severance package upon leaving the company.
severity
The state or quality of being very bad, serious, or harsh; the degree of intensity of something harmful.
Example
The tribunal took into account the severity of the offence when determining the appropriate sentence.
sex
The state of being male or female.
Example
How can you tell what sex a fish is?
shackle
A metal fastening, typically one of a pair, used to restrain a prisoner's wrists or ankles; something that restricts freedom.
Example
Breaking free from the shackles of outdated tradition was the central theme of her acclaimed memoir.
shade
An area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it.
Example
The shade of the pine tree provided some protection from the sun.
shadow
The dark shape that somebody/something’s form makes on a surface, for example on the ground, when they are between the light and the surface.
Example
The children were having fun, chasing each other's shadows.
shambles
A state of total disorder or chaos; a situation or place of carnage.
Example
The press conference descended into a shambles when reporters began shouting over one another.
shape
The form of the outer edges or surfaces of something; an example of something that has a particular form.
Example
a rectangular/spherical/cylindrical shape
shard
A sharp piece of broken ceramic, glass, metal, or other material.
Example
Archaeologists carefully catalogued every shard of pottery recovered from the excavation site.
sheen
A soft lustre on a surface; a glossy or satiny quality.
Example
The polished mahogany table had a warm sheen that spoke of careful craftsmanship.
sheep
An animal with a thick coat, kept on farms for its meat (called mutton or lamb) or its wool.
Example
a flock of sheep
sheet
A large piece of thin cloth used on a bed to lie on or lie under.
Example
Have you changed the sheets (= put clean sheets on the bed)?
shelf
A flat board, made of wood, metal, glass, etc., fixed to the wall or forming part of a cupboard, bookcase, etc., for things to be placed on.
Example
I helped him put up some shelves in his bedroom.
shell
The hard outer part of eggs, nuts, some seeds, and some animals.
Example
We collected shells on the beach.
shelter
The fact of having a place to live or stay, considered as a basic human need.
Example
Human beings need food, clothing and shelter.
shift
A period of time worked by a group of workers who start work as another group finishes.
Example
to work a shift
ship
A large boat that carries people or goods by sea.
Example
The yard builds ships for the Navy.
shipping
Ships in general or considered as a group.
Example
The canal is open to shipping.
shirt
A piece of clothing worn on the upper part of the body, made of light cloth, with sleeves and usually with a collar and buttons down the front.
Example
to wear a shirt
shock
A strong feeling of surprise as a result of something happening, especially something unpleasant; the event that causes this feeling.
Example
I got a terrible shock the other day.
shoot
The part that grows up from the ground when a plant starts to grow; a new part that grows on plants or trees.
Example
new green shoots
shooting
A situation in which a person is shot with a gun.
Example
Terrorist groups claimed responsibility for the shootings and bomb attacks.
shop
A building or part of a building where you can buy goods or services.
Example
to open/close/run a shop
shopping
The activity of going to shops and buying things or ordering them online.
Example
to go shopping
shore
The land along the edge of the sea, the ocean or a lake.
Example
a rocky/sandy shore
shortage
A situation when there is not enough of the people or things that are needed.
Example
food/housing/water shortages
shot
The act of firing a gun; the sound this makes.
Example
We heard some shots in the distance.
shoulder
Either of the two parts of the body between the top of each arm and the neck.
Example
your left/right shoulder
show
A programme on television or the radio.
Example
Millions of people watch the show.
shower
A piece of equipment producing a flow of water that you stand under to wash yourself; the small room or part of a room that contains a shower.
Example
in the shower, He's in the shower.
shrewdness
The quality of having a sharp, perceptive understanding of practical matters, especially for personal advantage.
Example
Her shrewdness in negotiations consistently secured better terms than her colleagues could achieve.
shrine
A holy or sacred place dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, or similar figure of veneration.
Example
Pilgrims travel from across the world to pay their respects at the shrine of the revered saint.
shroud
A length of cloth or an enveloping garment in which a dead person is wrapped for burial; something that conceals or obscures.
Example
A shroud of secrecy surrounded the negotiations, preventing any details from reaching the public.
shy
Nervous or embarrassed about meeting and speaking to other people.
Example
He is not exactly the shy and retiring type.
sibling
A brother or sister.
Example
squabbles between siblings
side
Either of the two halves of a surface, an object or an area that is divided by an imaginary central line.
Example
the right side of the brain
sidewalk
A paved path for pedestrians at the side of a street.
Example
The children were playing on the sidewalk.
siege
A military operation in which forces surround a fortified place, cutting off essential supplies to force a surrender.
Example
The medieval city withstood a siege of six months before its defenders finally capitulated.
sight
The ability to see.
Example
to lose your sight (= to become blind)
signal
A movement or sound that you make to give somebody information, instructions, a warning, etc.
Example
a danger/warning/distress signal
significance
The importance of something, especially when this has an effect on what happens in the future.
Example
a decision of major political significance
silence
A complete lack of noise or sound.
Example
Their footsteps echoed in the silence.
silent
Where there is little or no sound; making little or no sound.
Example
At last the traffic fell silent.
silhouette
The dark shape and outline of someone or something visible against a lighter background.
Example
The silhouette of the cathedral spire was visible against the pale winter sky long before the city itself came into view.
silk
Fine soft thread produced by silkworms.
Example
The caterpillar spins the silk around its entire body.
silver
A chemical element. Silver is a shiny, grey-white precious metal used for making coins, jewellery, beautiful objects, etc.
Example
a silver ring/chain
similarity
The state of being similar to somebody/something but not exactly the same.
Example
similarity between A and B, The report highlights the similarity between the two groups.
simile
A figure of speech that directly compares two different things, typically using the words "like" or "as".
Example
The poet's use of the simile "as fleeting as morning dew" conveyed the transience of youth with elegant economy.
simpleton
A person who is thought to lack intelligence or good judgement; a fool.
Example
He had been treated as a simpleton by his colleagues for years before his breakthrough research silenced all criticism.
simulation
A situation in which a particular set of conditions is created artificially in order to study or experience something that could exist in reality.
Example
a computer simulation of how the planet functions
sin
An offence against God or against a religious or moral law.
Example
to commit a sin
sinecure
A position requiring little or no work but yielding profit or honour.
Example
Critics accused the appointment of being a political sinecure rather than a role serving any genuine public function.
singer
A person who sings, or whose job is singing, especially in public.
Example
She's a wonderful singer.
singing
The activity of making musical sounds with your voice.
Example
the beautiful singing of birds
singularity
The quality of being remarkable or unique; in physics or mathematics, a point at which a quantity becomes infinite.
Example
Philosophers of technology debate whether a technological singularity would represent liberation or catastrophe for humanity.
sink
A large open basin in a kitchen or bathroom, with a tap, used for washing dishes, hands, or food.
Example
The dirty dishes were piled up in the sink.
sir
Used as a polite way of addressing a man whose name you do not know, for example in a shop or restaurant.
Example
Good morning, sir. Can I help you?
siren
A device that makes a loud warning sound; in mythology, a creature whose enchanting music lured sailors to destruction.
Example
The siren of easy credit proved irresistible to consumers who had not anticipated the long-term consequences.
sister
A girl or woman who has the same mother and father as another person.
Example
She's my sister.
site
A place where a building, town, etc. was, is or will be located.
Example
the site of a sixteenth-century abbey
situation
All the circumstances and things that are happening at a particular time and in a particular place.
Example
the present economic/financial/political situation
sketch
A simple picture that is drawn quickly and does not have many details.
Example
The artist is making sketches for his next painting.
ski
One of a pair of long narrow pieces of wood, metal or plastic that you attach to boots so that you can move smoothly over snow.
Example
a pair of skis
skiing
The sport or activity of moving over snow on skis.
Example
He also enjoys skiing and mountain biking.
skill
The ability to do something well.
Example
The job requires skill and an eye for detail.
skin
The layer of tissue that covers the body.
Example
to have dark/pale skin
skirmish
A brief, small-scale military engagement; a minor or preliminary dispute or contest.
Example
What began as a diplomatic skirmish over trade tariffs escalated into a full trade war within months.
skull
The bone structure that forms the head and surrounds and protects the brain.
Example
a fractured skull
skullduggery
Underhand, unscrupulous, or dishonest behaviour or activities.
Example
The audit uncovered decades of financial skullduggery that had gone undetected by the board.
sky
The space above the earth that you can see when you look up, where clouds and the sun, moon and stars appear.
Example
The sky suddenly went dark and it started to rain.
slander
The action or crime of making a false spoken statement damaging to a person's reputation.
Example
She brought a successful action for slander after the false allegations were broadcast on national radio.
slave
A person who is owned by another person and is forced to work for and obey them.
Example
A former slave, he graduated from Clafflin University in South Carolina.
slavery
The state of being forced to work as a slave.
Example
to be sold into slavery
sleep
The natural state of rest in which your eyes are closed, your body is not active, and your mind is not conscious.
Example
I need to get some sleep.
slice
A thin flat piece of bread, meat, cheese, etc. that has been cut off a larger piece; a piece of cake that has been cut from a larger cake.
Example
Cut the meat into thin slices.
slope
A surface or piece of land that slopes (= is higher at one end than the other).
Example
on a slope, The town is built on a slope.
slot
A long, narrow opening, into which you put or fit something.
Example
to put some coins in the slot
sloth
Reluctance to work or make an effort; laziness, counted among the seven deadly sins.
Example
The professor attributed the declining quality of student work to intellectual sloth fostered by digital convenience.
slumber
A period of sleep, especially a peaceful or prolonged one.
Example
The country had been roused from its political slumber by a series of dramatic revelations.
smartphone
A mobile phone that also has some of the functions of a computer, for example the facility to use apps and the internet.
Example
You can use your smartphone to access the internet.
smattering
A small, superficial amount of knowledge of a subject or language; a small scattered number of something.
Example
Her smattering of Arabic proved just sufficient to navigate the markets without a guide.
smoking
The activity or habit of smoking cigarettes, etc.
Example
No Smoking (= for example, on a notice)
snake
A reptile with a very long thin body and no legs. There are many types of snake, some of which are poisonous.
Example
a snake coiled up in the grass
snare
A trap for catching birds or animals; a thing that lures someone into a dangerous or difficult situation.
Example
The seemingly generous contract was in fact a legal snare designed to transfer intellectual property rights.
sneaker
A soft shoe worn for sports or casual occasions; a trainer. (chiefly North American).
Example
He wore comfortable sneakers for the walk.
snow
Small soft white pieces (called flakes) of frozen water that fall from the sky in cold weather; this substance when it is lying on the ground.
Example
Snow was falling heavily.
snub
An act of rebuffing or ignoring someone as a deliberate show of contempt.
Example
His absence from the ceremony was widely interpreted as a deliberate snub directed at the host government.
soap
A substance that you use with water for washing your body.
Example
Wash the affected area with soap and water.
sobriety
The state of being sober; seriousness, gravity, and self-restraint in manner or behaviour.
Example
The sobriety of her address to the assembly commanded respect from even her most vocal opponents.
socialist
Connected with socialism.
Example
socialist beliefs
society
People in general, living together in communities.
Example
She believes that the arts benefit society as a whole.
sock
A piece of clothing that is worn over the foot, ankle and lower part of the leg, especially inside a shoe.
Example
a pair of socks
software
The programs used by a computer for doing particular jobs.
Example
management/editing software
soil
The top layer of the earth in which plants, trees, etc. grow.
Example
instruments for measuring soil moisture
sojourn
A temporary stay in a place.
Example
Her sojourn in Vienna during the 1920s profoundly influenced both her artistic style and her political outlook.
solace
Comfort or consolation in a time of distress or sadness.
Example
He found solace in music during the long months of his convalescence.
soldier
A member of an army, especially one who is not an officer.
Example
They visited the graves of US soldiers killed in the First World War.
solemnity
The state or quality of being serious and dignified; a formal ceremony.
Example
The solemnity of the occasion demanded restraint, and the guests complied without exception.
solid
A substance or an object that is solid, not a liquid or a gas.
Example
liquids and solids
solidarity
Support by one person or group of people for another because they share feelings, opinions, aims, etc.
Example
community solidarity
soliloquy
An act of speaking one's thoughts aloud when by oneself or regardless of any hearers, especially in a play.
Example
Hamlet's soliloquy in the third act remains one of the most analysed passages in all of English literature.
solitude
The state or situation of being alone, especially when this is peaceful and pleasant.
Example
She sought out solitude not from misanthropy but from a need to restore her creative energies.
solstice
Either of the two times in the year when the sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky at noon, marking the longest and shortest days.
Example
Ancient monuments such as Stonehenge were aligned to mark the precise moment of the summer solstice.
solution
A way of solving a problem or dealing with a difficult situation.
Example
Attempts to find a solution have failed.
son
A person’s male child.
Example
their four-year-old son
sophistry
The use of clever but false arguments, especially with the intention of deceiving.
Example
The barrister's case rested on sophistry that impressed the uninformed but crumbled under rigorous cross-examination.
sophomore
A second-year student at a university or college.
Example
He is a sophomore at Yale.
sort
A group or type of people or things that are similar in a particular way.
Example
‘What sort of music do you like?’ ‘Oh, all sorts.’
soul
The spiritual part of a person, believed to exist after death.
Example
He believed his immortal soul was in peril.
sound
Something that you can hear.
Example
a loud/soft/faint sound
soup
A liquid food made by boiling meat, vegetables, etc. in water, often eaten as the first course of a meal.
Example
a bowl/cup of soup
source
A place, person or thing that you get something from.
Example
renewable energy sources
south
The direction that is on your right when you watch the sun rise; one of the four main points of the compass.
Example
Which way is south?
sovereign
A supreme ruler, especially a monarch; a former British gold coin worth one pound sterling.
Example
The constitution vests executive authority in the sovereign, acting on the advice of elected ministers.
sovereignty
Complete power to govern a country.
Example
The country claimed sovereignty over the island.
spam
Advertising material sent by email to people who have not asked for it; advertising material on the internet that is not wanted.
Example
to send/block spam
spasm
A sudden involuntary muscular contraction; a sudden brief spell of an activity or sensation.
Example
A spasm of panic gripped the markets when the central bank's announcement was misinterpreted.
spate
A large number of similar things coming in quick succession; a sudden flood in a river.
Example
The government struggled to respond to the spate of industrial accidents that erupted across the region.
speaker
A person who gives a talk or makes a speech.
Example
He was a guest speaker at the conference.
specialist
A person who is an expert in a particular area of work or study.
Example
a specialist in Japanese history
species
A group into which animals, plants, etc. that are able to have sex with each other and produce healthy young are divided, smaller than a genus and identified by a Latin name.
Example
a conservation area for endangered species
specimen
A small amount of something that shows what the rest of it is like.
Example
Astronauts have brought back specimens of rock from the moon.
spectacle
Two lenses in a frame that rests on the nose and ears. People wear spectacles in order to be able to see better or to protect their eyes from bright light.
Example
a pair of spectacles
spectator
A person who is watching an event, especially a sports event.
Example
The new football stadium will hold 75 000 spectators.
spectre
A ghost; a threatening or disturbing prospect.
Example
The spectre of inflation loomed over the negotiations, making all parties reluctant to commit.
spectrum
A band of coloured lights in order of their wavelengths, as seen in a rainbow and into which light may be separated.
Example
A spectrum is formed by a ray of light passing through a prism.
speculation
The act of forming opinions about what has happened or what might happen without knowing all the facts.
Example
His private life is the subject of much speculation.
speculator
A person who invests in stocks, property, or other ventures in the hope of financial gain but with the risk of loss.
Example
Land speculators had driven property prices far beyond what ordinary families could afford.
speech
A formal talk that a person gives to an audience.
Example
Several people made speeches at the wedding.
speed
The rate at which somebody/something moves or travels.
Example
at … speed, at high/low/full/top speed
spending
The amount of money that is spent by a government, an organization or a person.
Example
to increase/cut/reduce spending
sphere
A solid figure that is completely round, with every point on its surface at an equal distance from the centre.
Example
The Earth is not a perfect sphere.
spice
One of the various types of powder or seed that come from plants and are used in cooking. Spices have a strong taste and smell.
Example
common spices such as ginger and cinnamon
spicy
Having a strong taste because spices have been added to it.
Example
I don't like spicy food.
spider
A small creature with eight thin legs. Many spiders spin webs to catch insects for food.
Example
a poisonous spider
spine
The row of small bones that are connected together down the middle of the back.
Example
A shiver went down my spine.
spinster
An unmarried woman, typically one regarded as past the usual age for marriage; in law, an unmarried woman.
Example
The novel's protagonist refuses the label of spinster, insisting that her independence represents a conscious choice rather than a failure.
spirit
The part of a person that includes their mind, feelings and character rather than their body.
Example
You are underestimating the power of the human spirit to overcome difficulties.
spite
A feeling of wanting to hurt or upset somebody.
Example
out of spite, I'm sure he only said it out of spite.
splendour
Magnificent and splendid appearance; grandeur.
Example
Visitors were overwhelmed by the splendour of the baroque palace and its formal gardens.
spokesman
A person who speaks for a group or an organization.
Example
a police spokesman
spokesperson
A person who speaks for a group or an organization.
Example
a council spokesperson
sponsor
A person or company that pays for a radio or television programme, or for a concert or sporting event, usually in return for advertising.
Example
The programme is funded by a number of corporate sponsors.
sponsorship
Financial support from a sponsor.
Example
a $50 million sponsorship deal
spontaneity
The condition of being spontaneous; unplanned, naturally arising behaviour or events.
Example
The apparent spontaneity of the performance was, paradoxically, the result of months of meticulous rehearsal.
spoon
A tool that has a handle with a shallow bowl at the end, used for mixing, serving and eating food.
Example
a plastic/metal spoon
spot
A small round area that has a different colour or feels different from the surface it is on.
Example
Which has spots, the leopard or the tiger?
spotlight
A light with a single, very bright beam that can be directed at a particular place or person, especially a performer on the stage.
Example
The room was lit by spotlights.
spouse
A husband or wife.
Example
Fill in your spouse’s name here.
sprawl
An untidy or irregular spreading mass or group; the spread of urban development into rural areas.
Example
Urban sprawl has consumed vast tracts of agricultural land on the city's periphery.
spread
An increase in the amount or number of something that there is, or in the area that is affected by something.
Example
measures to halt the spread of the disease
spring
The season between winter and summer when plants begin to grow.
Example
The following spring, the three artists travelled to California.
spur
A thing that prompts or encourages someone; a stimulus or incentive.
Example
The threat of foreign competition proved the most effective spur to domestic innovation.
spy
A person who tries to get secret information about another country, organization or person, especially somebody who is employed by a government or the police.
Example
He was denounced as a foreign spy.
squad
A section of a police force that deals with a particular type of crime.
Example
the drugs/fraud/bomb/riot squad
squadron
A principal division of a cavalry regiment or armoured formation; a group of military aircraft.
Example
The squadron was scrambled at dawn in response to unidentified aircraft approaching the border.
squalor
The state of being extremely dirty and unpleasant, especially as a result of poverty or neglect.
Example
The documentary exposed the squalor in which thousands of migrant workers were forced to live.
square
A shape with four straight sides of equal length and four angles of 90°; a piece of something that has this shape.
Example
First break the chocolate into squares.
stability
The quality or state of being steady and not changing or being upset in any way (= the quality of being stable).
Example
political/economic/social stability
stadium
A large sports ground surrounded by rows of seats and usually other buildings.
Example
a football/sports stadium
staff
All the workers employed in an organization considered as a group.
Example
medical/nursing/teaching/coaching staff
stage
A period or state that something/somebody passes through while developing or making progress.
Example
at… stage, I can't make a decision at this stage.
stair
A set of steps built between two floors inside a building.
Example
We had to carry the piano up three flights of stairs.
stake
Money that somebody invests in a company.
Example
a 20 per cent stake in the business
stalemate
A situation in which further action or progress by opposing parties seems impossible; a draw position in chess.
Example
The peace negotiations reached a stalemate when neither side would concede on the question of territory.
stalwart
A loyal, reliable, and hardworking supporter or participant in an organisation or team.
Example
She was a stalwart of the reform movement who had campaigned tirelessly for over three decades.
stamina
The ability to sustain prolonged physical or mental effort.
Example
Completing a doctoral dissertation demands not only intellectual ability but remarkable emotional stamina.
stamp
A small piece of paper with a design on it that you buy and stick on an envelope or a package before you post it.
Example
a 67p stamp
stampede
A sudden panicked rush of a number of horses, cattle, or other animals; a sudden rapid movement of people.
Example
Rumours of the company's insolvency triggered a stampede of investors desperate to withdraw their funds.
stance
The opinions that somebody has about something and expresses publicly.
Example
What is the newspaper's stance on the war?
standard
A level of quality, especially one that people think is acceptable.
Example
There has been a fall in living standards.
standoff
A deadlock between two equally matched opponents; a situation in which neither side can gain an advantage.
Example
The diplomatic standoff between the two nations lasted seven months before a mediator was appointed.
standstill
A situation or condition in which there is no movement or activity at all; a complete halt.
Example
The strike brought the entire rail network to a standstill for three consecutive days.
stanza
A group of lines forming the basic recurring metrical unit in a poem; a verse.
Example
Each stanza of the ode is structured around a central image that accumulates meaning with each repetition.
star
A large ball of burning gas in space that we see as a point of light in the sky at night.
Example
There was a big moon and hundreds of stars were shining overhead.
start
The point at which something begins.
Example
If we don't hurry, we'll miss the start.
stasis
A period of inactivity or equilibrium; the cessation of flow or progress.
Example
The institution had fallen into a stasis that its new director was determined to break.
state
A country considered as an organized political community controlled by one government.
Example
the Baltic States
statement
Something that you say or write that gives information or an opinion.
Example
Are the following statements true or false?
statesmanship
The skill and expertise of a statesman; wise, skilful, and respected political leadership.
Example
The resolution of the crisis was widely attributed to the statesmanship of the foreign minister.
station
A place where trains stop so that passengers can get on and off; the buildings connected with this.
Example
the main station
statistic
A collection of information shown in numbers.
Example
Analysis of crime statistics showed high levels of violent crime within the area.
status
The legal position of a person, group or country.
Example
They were granted refugee status.
statute
A written law passed by a legislative body.
Example
The court held that the company's conduct fell within the scope of the statute and was therefore unlawful.
steadfastness
The quality of being resolutely firm and unwavering in purpose, loyalty, or resolve.
Example
Her steadfastness in the face of sustained institutional pressure earned her widespread admiration.
stealth
Cautious and secretive action or movement intended to avoid detection.
Example
The auditors gained access to the records with remarkable stealth, revealing the fraud before anyone could conceal it.
steam
The hot gas that water changes into when it boils.
Example
Steam rose from the boiling kettle.
steel
A strong, hard metal that is made of a mixture of iron and carbon.
Example
the iron and steel industry
stench
A strong and very unpleasant smell.
Example
The stench of corruption that hung over the administration ultimately drove the electorate to demand change.
stereotype
A fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality and may cause hurt and offence.
Example
cultural/gender/racial stereotypes
steward
A person who manages or looks after another's property or affairs; an official who oversees arrangements at a public event.
Example
As a steward of the national heritage collection, she felt a profound responsibility to future generations.
stewardship
The job of supervising or taking care of something, such as an organisation or property; responsible management of entrusted resources.
Example
The foundation praised his stewardship of the endowment, which had grown substantially under his oversight.
stick
A thin piece of wood that has fallen or been broken from a tree.
Example
We collected dry sticks to start a fire.
stickler
A person who insists on a particular quality or type of behaviour, especially one regarded as excessive.
Example
As a stickler for grammatical precision, she returned manuscripts with extensive annotations.
stigma
A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person.
Example
Significant progress has been made in reducing the stigma associated with mental health conditions.
stimulus
Something that helps somebody/something to develop better or more quickly.
Example
Books provide children with ideas and a stimulus for play.
stint
A fixed or limited period of time spent doing a particular job or activity.
Example
After a brief stint at a city law firm, she chose to return to academia.
stock
A supply of goods that is available for sale in a shop.
Example
We have a fast turnover of stock.
stoicism
The endurance of pain or hardship without the display of feelings and without complaint; the ancient Greek philosophy founded by Zeno.
Example
He bore the months of gruelling treatment with a stoicism that humbled all who knew him.
stomach
The organ inside the body where food goes when you eat it.
Example
stomach pains/cramps
stone
A hard solid mineral substance that is found in the ground, often used for building.
Example
Most of the houses are built of stone.
stopgap
A temporary measure or substitute used until something permanent is found.
Example
The emergency funding was intended as a stopgap while a long-term financial solution was negotiated.
storage
The process of keeping something in a particular place until it is needed; the space where things can be kept.
Example
tables that fold flat for storage
store
A large shop that sells many different types of goods.
Example
It's available at London's three biggest stores.
storm
Very bad weather with strong winds and rain, and often thunder and lightning.
Example
fierce/heavy/severe/violent storms
story
A description of events and people that the writer or speaker has invented in order to entertain people.
Example
a tragic love story
stove
An apparatus for cooking or heating that operates by burning fuel or using electricity.
Example
Put the pot on the stove.
stowaway
A person who hides aboard a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle in order to travel secretly or without paying.
Example
The stowaway was discovered concealed in a cargo container on the fourth day of the voyage.
strain
Pressure on a system or relationship because great demands are being placed on it.
Example
The transport service cannot cope with the strain of so many additional passengers.
strand
A single thin piece of thread, wire, hair, etc.
Example
He pulled at a loose strand of wool in his sweater.
stratagem
A plan or scheme, especially one used to outwit an opponent or achieve a goal.
Example
The negotiating team's apparent concession was in fact a stratagem designed to extract a larger counter-offer.
strategist
A person skilled in planning and directing strategies, especially in business, politics, or military operations.
Example
Regarded as the campaign's chief strategist, she was credited with engineering the party's unexpected majority.
strategy
A plan that is intended to achieve a particular purpose.
Example
the government’s economic strategy
stratification
The arrangement or classification of something into different groups, layers, or categories.
Example
Sociologists study how economic stratification reproduces itself across successive generations.
stratum
A layer or series of layers of rock, soil, or other material; a level or class to which people are assigned according to social status.
Example
The reforms were designed to benefit the lowest stratum of society, which had been systematically neglected.
stream
A small, narrow river.
Example
a mountain stream
street
A public road in a city or town that has houses and buildings on one side or both sides.
Example
along/down/up the street, I was just walking along the street when it happened.
strength
The quality of being physically strong.
Example
He pushed against the rock with all his strength.
stress
Pressure or worry caused by problems in somebody’s life or by having too much to do.
Example
emotional/mental stress
stricture
A restriction on a person or activity; a sternly critical remark.
Example
The report contained several strictures on the department's failure to follow established safeguarding procedures.
strife
Angry or bitter disagreement over fundamental issues; conflict.
Example
The region had been torn apart by ethnic strife for generations before the peace accord was signed.
string
Long, thin material used for tying things together, made of several threads that have been twisted together; a piece of string used to fasten or pull something or keep something in place.
Example
a piece/length/ball of string
stringency
The quality of being strict, precise, or demanding; the state of tight financial conditions.
Example
The stringency of the new regulatory framework imposed considerable compliance costs on smaller firms.
strip
A long narrow piece of paper, metal, cloth, etc.
Example
a strip of material
stroke
An act of hitting a ball, for example with a bat or racket.
Example
What a beautiful stroke!
stronghold
A place that has been fortified so as to protect it against attack; a place where a particular cause or belief is strongly defended.
Example
The city had long been an impregnable stronghold of conservative sentiment in an otherwise liberal region.
student
A person who is studying at a university or college.
Example
a college/university student
studio
A room where radio or television programmes are recorded and broadcast from, or where music is recorded.
Example
a television/recording studio
study
The activity of learning or gaining knowledge, either from books or by examining things in the world.
Example
a room set aside for private study
stuff
Used to refer to a substance, material, group of objects, etc. when you do not know the name, when the name is not important or when it is obvious what you are talking about.
Example
What's all that sticky stuff on the carpet?
stupor
A state of near-unconsciousness or insensibility caused by drugs, alcohol, or shock.
Example
The country appeared to be in a collective stupor, unable to comprehend the scale of the disaster.
style
The particular way in which something is done.
Example
a wide range of musical styles
subconscious
The part of the mind that influences actions and feelings without one's full awareness.
Example
Psychoanalysts maintain that unresolved conflicts in the subconscious can manifest as physical symptoms.
subject
A thing or person that is being discussed, described or dealt with.
Example
Walker's work has been the subject of much debate.
submission
The act of accepting that somebody has defeated you and that you must obey them.
Example
a gesture of submission
subordination
The action of treating something as of lesser value; the condition of being subject to authority.
Example
The constitution explicitly prohibits the subordination of civil authority to military command.
subpoena
A writ ordering a person to attend a court or produce documents.
Example
The committee issued a subpoena compelling the former official to testify under oath.
subscriber
A person who pays money, usually once a year, to receive regular copies of a magazine or newspaper or have access to it online.
Example
subscribers to ‘New Scientist’
subscription
An amount of money that you pay regularly to receive a service, be a member of a club, support a charity or receive regular copies of a newspaper or magazine; the act of paying this money.
Example
an annual subscription
subservience
The willingness to obey others unquestioningly; the state of being subordinate or compliant.
Example
Critics accused the press of subservience to political power that amounted to the surrender of journalistic independence.
subsidy
Money that is paid by a government or an organization to reduce the costs of services or of producing goods so that their prices can be kept low.
Example
agricultural subsidies
subsistence
The action or fact of maintaining or supporting oneself at a minimum level; the means of doing so.
Example
Millions of smallholders in the region rely on subsistence farming for their basic livelihood.
substance
A type of solid, liquid or gas that has particular qualities.
Example
a sticky substance
substantiation
The provision of evidence to prove or support a claim; the action of giving substance to something.
Example
The complaint was dismissed for lack of substantiation, as the claimant could produce no documentary evidence.
substitution
An act of using one person or thing in the place of another.
Example
Two substitutions were made during the game.
subterfuge
Deceit used in order to achieve one's goal; a stratagem employed to conceal the truth.
Example
The agency had relied on subterfuge to gain access to the documents, which rendered them inadmissible.
subtlety
The quality of being so delicate or precise as to be difficult to analyse or describe; fine distinctions.
Example
The subtlety of her argument was lost on an audience expecting simple polemics.
suburb
An area where people live that is outside the centre of a city.
Example
a suburb of London
subversion
The undermining of the power and authority of an established system or institution.
Example
The defendants were charged with subversion of the constitutional order.
success
The fact that you have achieved something that you want and have been trying to do or get.
Example
The company has achieved considerable success in this market.
succession
A number of people or things that follow each other in time or order.
Example
a succession of visitors
successor
A person or thing that comes after somebody/something else and takes their/its place.
Example
Who's the likely successor to him as party leader?
suffering
Physical or mental pain.
Example
Death finally brought an end to her suffering.
sufficiency
The condition of having enough of something; an adequate amount or quantity.
Example
The committee debated whether the proposed allocation would ensure sufficiency of resources for all regions.
suffrage
The right to vote in political elections.
Example
Universal suffrage was achieved in the country only after decades of organised political struggle.
suffragette
A woman who campaigned for the right to vote in political elections, particularly in the early twentieth century.
Example
The suffragette movement employed increasingly radical tactics as peaceful protest failed to secure legislative change.
sugar
A sweet substance, often in the form of white or brown crystals, made from the juices of various plants, used in cooking or to make tea, coffee, etc. sweeter.
Example
Do you take sugar (= have it in your tea, coffee, etc.)?
suggestion
An idea or a plan that you mention for somebody else to think about.
Example
Can I make a suggestion?
suit
A set of clothes made of the same cloth, including a jacket and trousers or a skirt.
Example
She was wearing a grey business suit.
sum
An amount of money.
Example
You will be fined the sum of £200.
summary
A short statement that gives only the main points of something, not the details.
Example
a news summary
summation
The process of adding things together; a summary of what has been said or done.
Example
The barrister's summation drew together the threads of evidence into a compelling and coherent narrative.
summer
The warmest season of the year, coming between spring and autumn.
Example
in the summer, We're going away in the summer.
summit
The highest point of something, especially the top of a mountain.
Example
We reached the summit at noon.
summons
An order to appear before a judge or magistrate; an authoritative or urgent call to attend.
Example
He received a summons to appear before the parliamentary select committee the following week.
Sunday
The day of the week after Saturday and before Monday, thought of as either the first or the last day of the week.
Example
It's Sunday today, isn't it?
superintendent
A person who manages or directs a place, department, or organization.
Example
The building superintendent is in charge of maintenance.
supermarket
A large shop that sells food, drinks and goods used in the home. People choose what they want from the shelves and pay for it as they leave.
Example
I only shop at this supermarket.
superstition
Excessively credulous belief in and reverence for supernatural beings or practices not based on reason.
Example
The anthropologist examined how superstition and religious belief intertwined in the community's daily rituals.
supervision
The work or activity involved in being in charge of somebody/something and making sure that everything is done correctly, safely, etc.
Example
Very young children should not be left to play without supervision.
supervisor
A person who supervises somebody/something.
Example
I have a meeting with my supervisor about my research topic.
supply
An amount of something that is provided or available to be used.
Example
Advances in agriculture increased the food supply.
supporter
A person who supports a political party, an idea, etc.
Example
a strong/loyal/staunch/ardent supporter
supremacist
An advocate of the supremacy of a particular group, especially one defined by race.
Example
The prosecution argued that the defendant's writings revealed him to be a committed white supremacist.
supremacy
The state or condition of being superior to all others in authority, power, or status.
Example
The doctrine of parliamentary supremacy places the legislature above all other branches of government.
surface
The outside or top layer of something.
Example
We need a flat, smooth surface to play the game on.
surfeit
An excessive amount of something; an overindulgent amount of food or drink.
Example
A surfeit of competing regulatory frameworks had created paralysis rather than effective oversight.
surgeon
A doctor who is trained to perform surgery (= medical operations that involve cutting open a person’s body).
Example
a brain/heart surgeon
surgery
Medical treatment of injuries or diseases that involves cutting open a person’s body and often removing or replacing some parts; the branch of medicine connected with this treatment.
Example
major/minor surgery
surplus
An amount that is extra or more than you need.
Example
food surpluses
surprise
An event, a piece of news, etc. that is unexpected or that happens suddenly.
Example
What a nice surprise!
surrogate
A substitute, especially a person deputising for another in a specific role or function.
Example
For many students living abroad, the teacher became a surrogate parent as well as an educator.
surveillance
The act of carefully watching a person suspected of a crime or a place where a crime may be committed.
Example
The police are keeping the suspects under constant surveillance.
survey
An investigation of the opinions, behaviour, etc. of a particular group of people, which is usually done by asking them questions.
Example
A recent survey showed 75 per cent of those questioned were in favour of the plan.
survival
The state of continuing to live or exist, often despite difficulty or danger.
Example
the struggle/battle/fight for survival
survivor
A person who continues to live, especially despite being nearly killed or experiencing great danger or difficulty.
Example
the sole/only survivor of the massacre
susceptibility
The state of being likely or liable to be influenced or harmed by a particular thing.
Example
Genetic factors may increase an individual's susceptibility to certain autoimmune conditions.
suspension
The act of officially removing somebody from their job, school, team, etc. for a period of time, usually as a punishment.
Example
suspension from school
suspicion
A feeling that somebody has done something wrong, illegal or dishonest, even though you have no proof.
Example
They drove away slowly to avoid arousing suspicion.
sustenance
Food and drink regarded as a source of strength; the process of sustaining life.
Example
The remote expedition depended entirely on airdropped supplies for its sustenance.
swathe
A broad strip or area of something; a long band of cloth used as a wrapping.
Example
A swathe of the old industrial district had been demolished to make way for the new development.
swimming
The sport or activity of swimming.
Example
Swimming is a good form of exercise.
swindle
A fraudulent scheme or action; a situation in which someone is deceived out of money or property.
Example
Investigators uncovered an elaborate swindle that had defrauded thousands of pension holders.
switch
A small device that you press or move up and down in order to turn a light or piece of electrical equipment on and off.
Example
a light switch
sword
A weapon with a long metal blade (= sharp cutting part) and a handle.
Example
to draw/sheathe a sword (= to take it out of/put it into its cover)
sycophancy
Obsequious behaviour or flattery intended to gain favour from those in power.
Example
The culture of sycophancy within the organisation meant that senior executives rarely received honest feedback.
sycophant
A person who acts obsequiously towards someone in order to gain advantage; a flatterer or toady.
Example
Surrounded by sycophants, the director gradually lost touch with the operational realities of the business.
syllabus
An outline of the subjects covered in a course of study or teaching; a programme of instruction.
Example
The updated syllabus incorporated recent scholarship that had substantially revised earlier interpretations.
symbiosis
A mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms or entities; interaction that benefits both parties.
Example
The symbiosis between the university and local industry generated both applied research and skilled employment.
symbol
A person, an object, an event, etc. that represents a more general quality or situation.
Example
The vase is decorated with religious symbols.
symbolism
The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities; a late nineteenth-century artistic movement using symbolic imagery.
Example
The novel's dense symbolism rewards careful reading but risks alienating those seeking a more straightforward narrative.
symposium
A conference or meeting to discuss a particular subject; in antiquity, a convivial meeting for drinking and intellectual conversation.
Example
Scholars from twelve countries gathered at the symposium to present their findings on climate adaptation strategies.
symptom
A change in your body or mind that shows that you are not healthy.
Example
Symptoms include a headache and sore throat.
syndicate
A group of individuals or organisations combined to promote a common interest, especially in business or crime.
Example
A syndicate of investors agreed to underwrite the development costs in exchange for a share of future revenues.
syndrome
A set of physical conditions that show you have a particular disease or medical problem.
Example
PMS or premenstrual syndrome
synergy
The interaction or cooperation of two or more agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects.
Example
The merger was justified on the grounds that synergy between the two firms' product lines would generate substantial cost savings.
synopsis
A brief summary or general survey of something, such as the plot of a play or film.
Example
The commissioning editor requested a two-page synopsis before agreeing to read the full manuscript.
synthesis
The act of combining separate ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.; a mixture or combination of ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.
Example
synthesis of A with B, the synthesis of art with everyday life
T-shirt
An informal shirt, usually with short sleeves (= arms) no collar or buttons, or just a few buttons at the top.
Example
He was wearing a faded pair of blue jeans and an old T-shirt.
table
A piece of furniture that consists of a flat top supported by legs.
Example
at a/the table, We sat at a round table in the corner.
tableau
A vivid or graphic description or scene; a picturesque grouping of figures.
Example
The opening scene presented a tableau of domestic life that the rest of the novel would systematically dismantle.
tabloid
A newspaper or publication featuring sensationalist stories and condensed content, or something presented in a compressed, lurid form.
Example
The politician's affair was splashed across every tabloid in the country before his office had issued a single statement.
taboo
A social or cultural prohibition against discussing or engaging with a particular subject or practice.
Example
Mental illness remained a taboo in many communities, preventing those who suffered from seeking help.
tact
The ability to deal with sensitive situations or people with skill and care without causing offence.
Example
She delivered the devastating feedback with such tact that the junior researcher left the meeting feeling motivated rather than crushed.
tactic
The particular method you use to achieve something.
Example
They tried all kinds of tactics to get us to go.
tactician
A person who is skilled at planning and executing strategies to achieve a particular goal.
Example
As a political tactician, he had an unnerving ability to exploit his opponents' weaknesses at the most damaging moments.
tag
A small piece of paper, cloth, plastic, etc. attached to something to identify it or give information about it.
Example
He put name tags on all his shirts.
taint
A trace of a bad or undesirable quality that contaminates or spoils something.
Example
The taint of corruption that clung to the administration made it impossible for reformers within it to be taken seriously.
tale
A story created using the imagination, especially one that is full of action and adventure.
Example
a coming-of-age/morality tale
talent
A natural ability to do something well.
Example
The festival showcases the talent of young musicians.
talisman
An object believed to have magical protective powers, or a person or thing that brings good fortune.
Example
The old photograph served as a talisman he carried through every deployment, convinced it kept him safe.
talk
A speech or lecture on a particular subject.
Example
I went to several interesting talks at the conference.
tank
A large container for holding liquid or gas.
Example
a fuel/water/storage tank
tantrum
An uncontrolled outburst of anger and frustration, especially associated with a child or someone behaving childishly.
Example
The CEO's tantrum during the board meeting — throwing documents and storming out — shocked even seasoned executives.
tape
A long, narrow piece of material with a sticky substance on one side that is used for sticking things together.
Example
adhesive/sticky tape
tariff
A tax or duty imposed by a government on imported or exported goods.
Example
The newly imposed tariff on steel imports was intended to protect domestic manufacturers but drew immediate retaliation from trading partners.
taskmaster
A person who imposes a demanding workload or rigorous standards on others.
Example
Her dissertation supervisor was a renowned taskmaster who expected three redrafted chapters before offering a single word of praise.
taxpayer
A person who pays tax to the government, especially on the money that they earn.
Example
Hundreds of thousands of pounds of taxpayers' money (= money paid in taxes) have been spent on the project.
tea
The dried leaves (called tea leaves) of the tea bush.
Example
a packet of tea
teacher
A person whose job is teaching, especially in a school.
Example
an English/a science teacher
team
A group of people who play a particular game or sport against another group of people.
Example
a football/basketball/soccer team
technique
A particular way of doing something, especially one in which you have to learn special skills.
Example
management techniques
tedium
The quality or state of being tediously long, slow, or dull; monotony.
Example
The tedium of transcribing hours of interview recordings was offset by the occasional extraordinary revelation buried in the data.
teen
A teenager.
Example
She is a teen and loves going to concerts.
teenager
A person who is between 13 and 19 years old.
Example
a magazine aimed at teenagers
telepathy
The supposed transmission of thoughts or feelings between individuals without using known sensory channels or physical interaction.
Example
After thirty years of marriage, they communicated with a wordless ease that their children half-jokingly attributed to telepathy.
telephone
A system for talking to somebody else over long distances, using wires or radio; a machine used for this.
Example
The telephone rang and Pat answered it.
temerity
Excessive confidence or boldness in doing something that may be considered audacious or reckless.
Example
He had the temerity to challenge the founding professor's seminal theory on his very first day as a postdoctoral fellow.
temperament
A person's or animal's nature, especially as it permanently affects their behaviour and emotional responses.
Example
Her equable temperament made her ideally suited to the role of mediator in disputes that left others frayed and exhausted.
temperance
Moderation and self-restraint, especially in the consumption of alcohol or in the expression of desires.
Example
The philosopher argued that temperance was not mere abstinence but the rational governance of appetite by reasoned principle.
temple
A building used for religious worship, especially in religions other than Christianity.
Example
the Temple of Diana at Ephesus
tempo
The speed or rhythm at which something proceeds or events occur.
Example
The tempo of diplomatic negotiations quickened once both sides privately signalled their willingness to accept a compromise.
tenacity
The quality of being persistent, determined, and unwilling to give up in the face of opposition or difficulty.
Example
It was her tenacity, more than her natural talent, that carried her through four years of rejection before her debut novel was accepted.
tenant
A person who pays rent for the use of a room, building, land, etc. to the person who owns it.
Example
They had evicted their tenants for non-payment of rent.
tendency
If somebody/something has a particular tendency, they are likely to behave or act in a particular way.
Example
to display artistic tendencies
tenet
A principle or belief held by a person, organisation, or movement as part of a broader doctrine.
Example
The central tenet of the movement — that structural inequality is reproduced through language — was both its greatest strength and its most contentious claim.
tenor
The general character, meaning, or direction of something; the prevailing tone or mood.
Example
The tenor of the peace talks shifted noticeably after the ceasefire violations were independently verified.
tension
A situation in which people do not trust each other, or feel unfriendly towards each other, and that may cause them to attack each other.
Example
There is mounting tension along the border.
tent
A shelter made of a large sheet of canvas, nylon, etc. that is supported by poles and ropes fixed to the ground, and is used especially for camping.
Example
to put up/take down a tent
tenure
The period of time when somebody holds an important job, especially a political one; the act of holding an important job.
Example
his four-year tenure as president
termination
The action of bringing something to an end, particularly the formal ending of employment or a legal agreement.
Example
The termination of the contract was handled so abruptly that the supplying firm had no time to seek alternative clients.
terminology
The body of specialised terms used in a particular field or subject.
Example
Mastering the terminology of patent law proved as demanding as understanding the underlying scientific concepts it described.
terminus
The final destination or end point of a journey, route, or process.
Example
The railway terminus at the edge of the city had once been a monument to industrial ambition and now stood half-derelict.
terms
The conditions that people offer, demand or accept when they make an agreement, an arrangement or a contract.
Example
peace terms
terrain
Used to refer to an area of land when you are mentioning its natural features, for example, if it is rough, flat, etc.
Example
difficult/rough/mountainous terrain
territory
Land that is under the control of a particular country or political leader.
Example
enemy/disputed/foreign territory
terror
A feeling of extreme fear.
Example
a feeling of sheer/pure terror
terrorism
The use of violent action in order to achieve political aims or to force a government to act.
Example
an act of terrorism
terrorist
A person who takes part in terrorism.
Example
The terrorists are threatening to blow up the plane.
test
An examination of somebody’s knowledge or ability, consisting of questions for them to answer or activities for them to perform.
Example
an IQ/a fitness test
testament
A thing that serves as evidence or proof of something; also, a person's formal declaration of their wishes regarding the disposal of their estate.
Example
The bridge, still standing after two centuries of floods, is a testament to the engineering ingenuity of the Victorian era.
testimonial
A formal statement or written declaration attesting to someone's character, qualifications, or achievements.
Example
The unsolicited testimonials from former students carried more weight with the appointments panel than any official reference.
testimony
A thing that shows that something else exists or is true.
Example
This increase in exports bears testimony to the successes of industry.
testing
The activity of testing somebody/something in order to find something out, see if it works, etc.
Example
nuclear testing
tether
A rope, chain, or other restraint used to tie something in place; also the limit of one's endurance or resources.
Example
After three consecutive all-nighters, he was at the end of his tether and submitted work he knew fell far short of his usual standard.
text
Any form of written material.
Example
a computer that can process text
textbook
A book that teaches a particular subject and that is used especially in schools and colleges.
Example
a school/medical/history textbook
texture
The way a surface, substance or piece of cloth feels when you touch it, for example how rough, smooth, hard or soft it is.
Example
the soft texture of velvet
thanks
Words or actions that show that you are grateful to somebody for something.
Example
How can I ever express my thanks to you for all you've done?
theater
A building or outdoor area in which plays and other dramatic performances are given.
Example
We went to the theater last night.
theatricality
The quality of being exaggerated, dramatic, or showy in a way that resembles theatrical performance.
Example
The defence attorney's courtroom theatricality was carefully calculated to create reasonable doubt rather than merely entertain.
theft
The crime of stealing something from a person or place.
Example
car theft
theologian
A person who studies the nature of God and religious belief through systematic analysis and critical inquiry.
Example
The theologian argued that the problem of evil was not a refutation of God's existence but an invitation to a more nuanced theodicy.
theology
The study of religion and beliefs.
Example
a degree in theology
theorem
A general proposition in mathematics or logic that has been proved by reasoning from axioms or previously established statements.
Example
Gödel's incompleteness theorem fundamentally altered mathematicians' understanding of what could be formally proved within any consistent system.
therapist
A specialist who treats a particular type of illness or problem, or who uses a particular type of treatment.
Example
a speech therapist
therapy
The treatment of a physical problem or an illness.
Example
He is receiving therapy for cancer.
therefore
Used to introduce the logical result of something that has just been mentioned.
Example
He's only 17 and therefore not eligible to vote.
thesaurus
A reference work that lists words grouped together by semantic relation, enabling a writer to find synonyms and related concepts.
Example
She reached for her thesaurus not to embellish her prose but to reclaim a precise word hovering just beyond recall.
thesis
A long piece of writing completed by a student as part of a university degree, based on their own research.
Example
Students must submit a thesis on an agreed subject within four years.
thicket
A dense group of bushes or trees; by extension, a complex and confusing mass of rules, problems, or ideas.
Example
Any attempt to reform the pension system means navigating a thicket of competing vested interests and contradictory legislative precedents.
thing
An object whose name you do not use because you do not need to or want to, or because you do not know it.
Example
Can you pass me that thing over there?
thoroughfare
A road or path forming a route between two places; a main public road.
Example
The ancient thoroughfare that once carried Roman legions now served as a cycle route through the heart of the city.
thrall
The state of being completely dominated by or captivated by someone or something; enslaved fascination.
Example
The audience sat in thrall to the soprano, barely breathing for fear of breaking the spell of her performance.
thread
A thin string of cotton, wool, silk, etc. used for sewing or making cloth.
Example
a needle and thread
threat
A statement in which you tell somebody that you will punish or harm them, especially if they do not do what you want.
Example
to make threats against somebody
threshold
The floor or ground at the bottom of a doorway, considered as the entrance to a building or room.
Example
He stepped across the threshold.
thrift
The quality of using money and resources carefully and not wastefully.
Example
The thrift her grandparents had practised through the Depression was incomprehensible to a generation raised in easy affluence.
throat
A passage in the neck through which food and air pass on their way into the body; the front part of the neck.
Example
a sore throat
throwback
A person or thing that reverts to or recalls an earlier type or form.
Example
The novel's omniscient narrator felt like a deliberate throwback to the Victorian mode, unsettling in a contemporary literary landscape.
thumb
The short, thick finger at the side of the hand, slightly apart from the other four.
Example
She still sucks her thumb when she's worried.
Thursday
The day of the week after Wednesday and before Friday.
Example
It's Thursday today, isn't it?
ticket
A printed piece of paper, or a message or image received on your phone or computer, that gives you the right to travel on a particular bus, train, etc. or to go into a theatre, etc.
Example
a plane/bus/train ticket
tide
A regular rise and fall in the level of the sea, caused by the pull of the moon and sun; the flow of water that happens as the sea rises and falls.
Example
the ebb and flow of the tide
timber
Trees that are grown to be used in building or for making things.
Example
the timber industry
timbre
The characteristic quality of a sound that distinguishes it from others of the same pitch and volume; tone colour.
Example
The timbre of his voice — warm yet faintly husky — gave even routine announcements a tone of quiet authority.
timidity
The quality of lacking confidence, courage, or boldness; a tendency to be easily frightened.
Example
The report attributed the regulatory failure not to corruption but to an institutional timidity that had become indistinguishable from complicity.
timing
The act of choosing when something happens; a particular point or period of time when something happens or is planned.
Example
The timing of the decision was a complete surprise.
tiny
Very small in size or amount.
Example
a tiny baby
tipster
A person who provides advance information or inside knowledge, especially about horse races, financial markets, or news stories.
Example
The journalist's investigation depended on a network of anonymous tipsters whose identities she protected even under legal pressure.
tirade
A long, vehement speech of censure or angry condemnation directed at someone or something.
Example
His tirade against the press lasted nearly twenty minutes, during which not a single journalist managed to insert a question.
tire
A rubber covering, typically inflated or surrounding an inflated inner tube, placed around a wheel to form a soft contact with the road.
Example
The car needs new tires.
tissue
A piece of soft paper, used especially as a handkerchief.
Example
a box of tissues
titan
A person of exceptional importance, strength, or achievement in a particular field.
Example
She was regarded as a titan of post-colonial literature, a writer whose work had reshaped what African fiction was understood to be.
tithe
One tenth of annual income or produce, historically paid as a tax to the Church or the state; any proportional levy.
Example
Members of the congregation were expected to contribute a tithe, though the definition of that obligation had grown contested over generations.
title
The name of a book, poem, painting, piece of music, etc.
Example
What's title of her new book?
tobacco
The dried leaves of the tobacco plant that are used for making cigarettes, smoking in a pipe, etc.
Example
tobacco smoke
today
This day.
Example
Today is her tenth birthday.
toe
One of the five small parts that stick out from the foot; any similar part on the foot of an animal or bird.
Example
the big/little toe (= the largest/smallest toe)
toilet
A large bowl attached to a pipe that you sit on or stand over when you get rid of waste matter from your body.
Example
Have you flushed the toilet?
token
A thing serving as a visible or tangible symbol of a fact, quality, or feeling; also a gesture of minimal substance.
Example
The apology offered was no more than a token — brief, formulaic, and unaccompanied by any structural change.
tokenism
The practice of making only a perfunctory effort to include members of minority groups in order to give the appearance of equality.
Example
Critics argued that the appointment of a single woman to the board was tokenism rather than a genuine commitment to gender equity.
tolerance
The quality of being willing to accept or tolerate somebody/something, especially opinions or behaviour that you may not agree with, or people who are not like you.
Example
She had no tolerance for jokes of any kind.
toll
Money that you pay to use a particular road or bridge.
Example
motorway tolls
tomato
A soft fruit with a lot of juice and shiny red skin that is eaten as a vegetable either raw or cooked.
Example
a bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwich
tombstone
A flat stone slab or upright marker erected over a grave bearing an inscription; also a metaphor for something definitively past.
Example
The faded inscription on the tombstone was almost illegible, the names of the dead erased by a century of frost and rain.
tome
A large, heavy, or scholarly book, typically one forming part of a larger work.
Example
The professor's definitive tome on Byzantine coinage ran to nine hundred pages and became the standard reference in its field.
tomorrow
The day after today.
Example
Today is Tuesday, so tomorrow is Wednesday.
ton
A unit for measuring weight, in the UK 2 240 pounds (long ton) and in the US 2 000 pounds (short ton).
Example
(informal), What have you got in this bag? It weighs a ton (= is very heavy).
tone
The quality of somebody’s voice, especially expressing a particular emotion.
Example
speaking in hushed/low/clipped/measured, etc. tones
tonight
The evening or night of today.
Example
Here are tonight's football results.
tonnage
The total weight or carrying capacity of a ship or fleet expressed in tons; by extension, a large quantity of something.
Example
The port's annual tonnage had tripled since the construction of the new deep-water terminal capable of handling supertankers.
tooth
Any of the hard white structures in the mouth used for biting food.
Example
I've just had a tooth out at the dentist's.
topic
A subject that you talk, write or learn about.
Example
The main topic of conversation was Tom's new girlfriend.
topography
The detailed description or representation of the physical features of an area, including its terrain and natural and man-made structures.
Example
The topography of the region, with its steep ravines and dense forest cover, made conventional military tactics virtually impossible.
torment
Severe physical or mental suffering; something that causes such suffering.
Example
The torment of uncertainty was, he later wrote, worse than any definitive bad news could have been.
tornado
A violently rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground; by extension, a person or thing of turbulent energy.
Example
The tornado cut a path of destruction four miles wide through communities that had little warning and fewer resources to rebuild.
torpor
A state of physical or mental inactivity, lethargy, or dormancy.
Example
The organisation had sunk into a torpor from which only a genuine crisis, it seemed, could rouse it.
torque
A force that tends to cause rotation around an axis; a twisting or rotational effect.
Example
The engineer explained that the bridge's failure was caused by unanticipated torsional torque induced by asymmetric wind loading.
torrent
A strong and fast-moving stream of water or other liquid; an overwhelming flow of something.
Example
A torrent of correspondence flooded the minister's office in the days following the announcement of the proposed school closures.
total
The amount you get when you add several numbers or amounts together; the final number of people or things when they have all been counted.
Example
You got 47 points on the written examination and 18 on the oral, making a total of 65.
touchstone
A standard or criterion by which something is judged or recognised; originally, a stone used to test the purity of precious metals.
Example
Orwell's six rules for clear writing remain a touchstone for anyone who wishes to communicate complex ideas without obfuscation.
tour
A journey made for pleasure during which several different towns, countries, etc. are visited.
Example
a walking/sightseeing/bus tour
tourism
The business activity connected with providing accommodation, services and entertainment for people who are visiting a place for pleasure.
Example
The area is heavily dependent on tourism.
tourist
A person who is travelling or visiting a place for pleasure.
Example
busloads of foreign tourists
tournament
A sports competition involving a number of teams or players who take part in different games and must leave the competition if they lose. The competition continues until there is only the winner left.
Example
a golf/tennis/soccer/chess tournament
tourniquet
A device or tight bandage applied to a limb to stop severe bleeding by compressing the blood vessels.
Example
The field medic improvised a tourniquet from a belt, slowing the haemorrhage long enough to reach the surgical team.
towel
A piece of cloth or paper used for drying things, especially your body.
Example
Help yourself to a clean towel.
tower
A tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle.
Example
a bell tower
town
A place with many houses, shops, etc. where people live and work. It is larger than a village but smaller than a city.
Example
The nearest town is ten miles away.
toxicity
The degree to which a substance or environment is harmful or destructive to living organisms; poisonousness.
Example
The toxicity of the online discourse around the issue had deterred many qualified experts from contributing their perspectives publicly.
toy
An object for children to play with.
Example
cuddly/stuffed toys
tract
An area of land; also, a short published work on a particular topic, typically on religious or political matters.
Example
The reformers distributed a widely read tract that condensed their programme into twelve crisp propositions any literate worker could absorb.
trade
The activity of buying and selling or of exchanging goods or services between people or countries.
Example
international/foreign/global/world trade
trademark
A name, symbol or design that a company uses for its products and that cannot be used by anyone else.
Example
‘Big Mac’ is McDonald's best-known trademark.
tradesman
A person engaged in trading or a skilled craft, particularly one who works with their hands in a recognised trade.
Example
The dispute over licensing requirements pitted professional associations against independent tradesmen who saw the new rules as protectionist barriers.
trading
The activity of buying and selling things.
Example
new laws on Sunday trading (= shops being open on Sundays)
traditionalism
Adherence to tradition, especially in cultural, religious, or political matters, often in resistance to modernising change.
Example
The tension between traditionalism and reform within the institution had remained unresolved for nearly a century.
traffic
The vehicles that are on a road at a particular time.
Example
There's always a lot of traffic at this time of day.
trafficker
A person who trades in something illicit, especially drugs or human beings.
Example
The prosecution presented evidence linking the trafficker to a network that had moved hundreds of people across four international borders.
tragedy
A very sad event or situation, especially one that involves death.
Example
It's a tragedy that she died so young.
trail
A long line or series of marks that is left by somebody/something.
Example
a trail of blood
trailblazer
A person who makes a new track through wild country; a pioneer who opens up new methods, ideas, or territory for others to follow.
Example
She was a genuine trailblazer, the first woman to hold the position and the one who made it possible for others to follow.
trailer
A truck, or a container with wheels, that is pulled by another vehicle.
Example
a car towing a trailer with a boat on it
train
A number of connected coaches or trucks, pulled by an engine or powered by a motor in each one, taking people and goods from one place to another.
Example
to get on/off a train
trainer
A shoe that you wear for sports or as informal clothing.
Example
a pair of trainers
training
The process of learning the skills that you need to do a job.
Example
staff training
trait
A particular quality in your personality.
Example
personality traits
trajectory
The path or curve described by an object moving through space; the course of development of something over time.
Example
The economist argued that the country's fiscal trajectory was unsustainable and would require structural reform within a decade.
trance
A half-conscious state in which someone is absorbed, insensible, or under the influence of an external force or deep absorption.
Example
She worked in a trance-like state for twelve hours, emerging from the studio to find the city dark and her phone full of unanswered messages.
tranquillity
The quality or state of being calm, peaceful, and undisturbed.
Example
The monastery's tranquillity was not mere silence but the product of a centuries-old discipline carefully maintained by its community.
transaction
A piece of business that is done between people, especially an act of buying or selling.
Example
financial transactions between companies
transcendence
The quality or state of being beyond or above normal human experience, perception, or physical limits.
Example
The composer sought in his final symphony a sense of transcendence that would lift the listener beyond the purely emotional into something ineffable.
transcript
A written or printed copy of words that have been spoken.
Example
a transcript of the interview
transformation
A complete change in somebody/something.
Example
The way in which we work has undergone a complete transformation in the past decade.
transgression
The act of going beyond or breaking a moral boundary, rule, or law.
Example
The severity of the punishment seemed wildly disproportionate to the relatively minor transgression it was meant to address.
transit
The process of being moved or carried from one place to another.
Example
The cost includes transit.
transition
The process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another.
Example
the transition from school to full-time work
translation
The process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language.
Example
an error in translation
transmission
The act or process of passing something from one person, place or thing to another.
Example
the transmission of the disease
transparency
The quality of something, such as a situation or an argument, that makes it easy to understand.
Example
a need for greater transparency in legal documents
transport
A system for carrying people or goods from one place to another using vehicles, roads, etc.
Example
air/freight/road transport
transportation
A system for carrying people or goods from one place to another using vehicles, roads, etc.
Example
public transportation (= the system of buses, trains, etc. provided for people to travel from one place to another)
trash
Waste material; refuse. (chiefly North American).
Example
Please put the trash in the bin.
trauma
A mental condition caused by severe shock, stress or fear, especially when the harmful effects last for a long time.
Example
the effects of trauma and stress on the body
travel
The act or activity of travelling.
Example
air/rail/space travel
traveler
A person who is traveling or who often travels.
Example
He is an experienced traveler.
travesty
A false, absurd, or distorted representation of something; a grotesque imitation.
Example
The rushed trial, conducted without adequate legal representation, was denounced internationally as a travesty of justice.
treachery
Betrayal of trust; deceptive action or behaviour intended to harm someone who placed confidence in the perpetrator.
Example
The admiral's treachery, when it was finally exposed, recast every military defeat of the preceding decade in a new and devastating light.
treason
The crime of betraying one's country, especially by attempting to overthrow the government or by assisting its enemies.
Example
He was charged with treason for passing classified communications to a foreign intelligence service over a period of six years.
treasure
A collection of valuable things such as gold, silver and jewellery.
Example
buried treasure
treat
Something special and enjoyable that gives pleasure or is given as a reward.
Example
A trip to the seaside is a real treat for the children.
treatise
A written work dealing formally and systematically with a subject.
Example
Her treatise on the ethics of artificial intelligence drew on philosophy, jurisprudence, and cognitive science in equal measure.
treatment
Something that is done to cure an illness or injury, or to make somebody look and feel good.
Example
The drug is used in the treatment of depression.
treaty
A formal agreement between two or more countries.
Example
the Treaty of Rome
tree
A tall plant that can live a long time. Trees have a thick central wooden trunk from which branches grow, usually with leaves on them.
Example
an oak/olive/apple tree
tremor
An involuntary quivering or shaking movement; a small earthquake; or a sudden feeling of fear or anxiety.
Example
A tremor of unease passed through the room as the interim results appeared on the screen, significantly below all forecasts.
trend
A general direction in which a situation is changing or developing.
Example
social/economic/political/demographic trends
trepidation
A feeling of fear or apprehension about something that may happen.
Example
She approached the interview with a trepidation she had never felt before a performance, however large the stage.
trial
A formal examination of evidence in court by a judge and often a jury, to decide if somebody accused of a crime is guilty or not.
Example
a murder/criminal trial
tribalism
The behaviour and attitudes that stem from strong loyalty to one's own social group, often at the expense of other groups.
Example
The researcher found that tribalism in online communities intensified rather than weakened when members were exposed to opposing viewpoints.
tribe
A social group in a traditional society consisting of people with the same language, culture, religion, etc., living in a particular area and often having one leader known as a chief.
Example
They were a nomadic horse-riding tribe.
tribulation
A state of great trouble or suffering; an extremely difficult or testing experience.
Example
The memoir recounts, without self-pity, the tribulations of her first decade in the country as a refugee without legal status.
tribune
A popular leader or champion of the people; historically, an elected official in ancient Rome defending citizens' rights.
Example
He styled himself a tribune of the working class, though his critics noted his affluent upbringing and elite education.
tributary
A river or stream flowing into a larger river or body of water; by extension, something that feeds into or contributes to a larger whole.
Example
Each minor tributary of the Amazon carries its own distinctive sediment load that alters the chemistry of the main river downstream.
tribute
An act, a statement or a gift that is intended to show your love or respect, especially for a dead person.
Example
At her funeral her oldest friend paid tribute to her life and work.
trick
Something that you do to make somebody believe something that is not true, or to annoy somebody as a joke.
Example
They had to think of a trick to get past the guards.
trickery
The practice of using deceptive or crafty techniques to achieve an end.
Example
The contract had been obtained through legal trickery — not outright fraud, but a deliberate exploitation of ambiguous language.
trickster
A person who cheats or deceives others; in mythology and folklore, a character who uses cunning and rule-breaking to subvert the established order.
Example
The trickster figure recurs across world mythologies as an agent of disruption whose chaos ultimately generates new possibility.
trifle
A thing of little value or importance; a matter treated as insignificant.
Example
He dismissed the ethical objections as a trifle, though they would later prove the central issue in the parliamentary inquiry.
trillion
The number 1,000,000,000,000; one million million.
Example
The national debt has reached over a trillion dollars.
trilogy
A group of three related works, especially novels, plays, or films, conceived as a unified whole.
Example
The final volume of the trilogy resolved narrative threads planted across twelve hundred pages with an economy that astonished reviewers.
trinket
A small ornament or piece of jewellery of little monetary value; a superficial or worthless trifle.
Example
The museum's gift shop offered trinkets that bore little relation to the profound artefacts displayed in the galleries above.
trio
A group of three people or things.
Example
A trio of English runners featured in the women’s 1 500 metres.
trip
A journey to a place and back again, especially a short one for pleasure or a particular purpose.
Example
Did you have a good trip?
triumph
A great success, achievement or victory.
Example
one of the greatest triumphs of modern science
troop
Soldiers, especially in large groups.
Example
They announced the withdrawal of 12 000 troops from the area.
trophy
An object such as a silver cup that is given as a prize for winning a competition.
Example
a trophy cabinet
troupe
A group of actors, dancers, singers, or other performers who tour and perform together.
Example
The travelling troupe had performed the same comedy in over forty countries, adapting the script to local political references each time.
truck
A large vehicle for carrying heavy loads by road.
Example
a truck driver
trudge
A long, exhausting walk undertaken under difficult conditions.
Example
The daily trudge through flooded streets to reach the relief distribution point tested the endurance of the camp's elderly residents most severely.
truism
A statement that is obviously true and hence conveys no new information; a platitude.
Example
The assertion that "communication is key" has become such a truism that it is now invoked to avoid rather than facilitate genuine dialogue.
trust
The belief that somebody/something is good, sincere, honest, etc. and will not try to harm or trick you.
Example
Our partnership is based on trust.
trustee
A person or an organization that has control of money or property that has been put into a trust for somebody.
Example
The bank will act as trustees for the estate until the child is 18.
trusteeship
The position or period of being a trustee; the responsibility of holding and administering assets on behalf of others.
Example
The islands were placed under international trusteeship following the conflict, pending a referendum on their final political status.
truth
The true facts about something, rather than the things that have been invented or guessed.
Example
Do you think she's telling the truth?
tsunami
An extremely large wave in the sea caused, for example, by an earthquake.
Example
A tsunami early warning system was set up in Hawaii.
tube
A long, hollow pipe made of metal, plastic, rubber, etc., through which liquids or gases move from one place to another.
Example
He had to be fed through a feeding tube for several months.
Tuesday
The day of the week after Monday and before Wednesday.
Example
It's Tuesday today, isn't it?
tuition
The act of teaching something, especially to one person or to people in small groups.
Example
She received private tuition in French.
tumor
A swelling of a part of the body, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue.
Example
The doctor found a benign tumor.
tumult
A loud, confused noise produced by a large mass of people; a state of confusion, excitement, or disorder.
Example
The tumult in the square reached such intensity that the president's address was inaudible even to those on the steps of the palace.
tundra
A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.
Example
The melting of the Siberian tundra was releasing methane at rates that climate models had not anticipated for several more decades.
tunnel
A passage built underground, for example to allow a road or railway to go through a hill, under a river, etc.
Example
a railway/railroad tunnel
turbulence
A state of conflict, confusion, or disorder; in physics or aviation, irregular fluctuation in air or fluid flow.
Example
The political turbulence of the interwar years had produced a generation of writers preoccupied with the fragility of civilised order.
turmoil
A state of great disturbance, confusion, or uncertainty.
Example
The resignation of three cabinet ministers in a single week plunged the government into turmoil from which it never fully recovered.
turn
The time when somebody in a group of people should or is allowed to do something.
Example
When it's your turn, take another card.
turncoat
A person who deserts one party or cause in order to join an opposing one.
Example
History branded him a turncoat, though he insisted his change of allegiance had been driven by conscience rather than self-interest.
turnout
The number of people who attend a particular event.
Example
This year's festival attracted a record turnout.
turpitude
Wickedness or depravity, especially of a morally reprehensible nature.
Example
The visa application was denied on grounds of moral turpitude, a legal category so vaguely defined as to be almost infinitely expansible.
tutelage
Protection or authority over another person, especially a minor; instruction and guidance provided by a mentor.
Example
Under the tutelage of the great sculptor, she developed a precision and patience that would define her own mature practice.
twilight
The soft glowing light before sunrise or after sunset; a period of decline following a peak of achievement or power.
Example
The memoir was written in the twilight of her career, and its candour surprised those who had known her only as a fiercely guarded public figure.
twin
One of two children born at the same time to the same mother.
Example
She's expecting twins.
tycoon
A wealthy, powerful person in business or industry.
Example
The media tycoon's acquisition of the newspaper group raised immediate concerns about editorial independence across the titles he now controlled.
type
A class or group of people or things that share particular qualities or features and are part of a larger group; a kind or sort.
Example
a rare blood type
typhoon
A tropical cyclone occurring in the western Pacific or Indian Ocean, equivalent to a hurricane.
Example
The typhoon made landfall at high tide, compounding the storm surge and overwhelming the coastal defences built after the last major event.
tyranny
Cruel and oppressive government or rule; any form of absolute, unjust authority.
Example
The philosopher distinguished between legitimate authority and tyranny on the basis of whether power was exercised for the common good or private advantage.
tyrant
A ruler who uses power cruelly and unjustly; any person who exercises authority in an oppressive manner.
Example
The regime's founder, initially welcomed as a liberator, consolidated power so completely that he became the tyrant he had claimed to overthrow.
ubiquity
The fact of appearing or being found everywhere at the same time; omnipresence.
Example
The ubiquity of smartphones had transformed not merely communication but the very structure of attention and social interaction.
ultimatum
A final demand or set of terms whose rejection will result in a breakdown of relations or punitive action.
Example
The ultimatum was delivered with a 48-hour deadline, leaving the opposing delegation almost no time for meaningful consultation.
umbrage
Offence or annoyance taken at what is perceived as a slight or discourtesy.
Example
She took umbrage at the reviewer's implication that her work was derivative, and her public response was more revealing than the original critique.
umpire
An official who watches a game or match and enforces the rules; a person appointed to settle a dispute impartially.
Example
In the absence of a trusted umpire, both parties agreed to submit the contract dispute to binding international arbitration.
unanimity
Complete agreement among all people involved.
Example
The unanimity of the verdict surprised legal observers who had expected at least one dissenting voice given the complexity of the evidence.
uncertainty
The state of being uncertain.
Example
There is considerable uncertainty about the company's future.
undercurrent
A hidden feeling, opinion, or tendency that is present but not openly expressed; an underwater current below the surface.
Example
There was an undercurrent of resentment in the applause — polite, even generous, but unmistakably hollow.
underdog
A competitor thought to have little chance of winning; a person or group in a weak or disadvantaged position.
Example
The electorate's sympathy for the underdog had been a decisive factor in several elections that confounded every polling prediction.
underground
Under the surface of the ground.
Example
an underground bunker/tunnel
underling
A person of lower rank or status who is subordinate to another; often used disparagingly.
Example
The directive came from the top, but it fell to her underlings to implement it in a way that seemed humane and workable.
underpinning
A foundation or support structure; the fundamental assumptions or principles on which something rests.
Example
The inquiry exposed the faulty underpinning of the entire financial model, which had concealed systemic risk behind confident projections.
understanding
The knowledge that somebody has about a particular subject or situation.
Example
Students will gain a broad understanding of the workings of Parliament.
understatement
A statement that represents something as smaller or less important than it really is; a rhetorical device of deliberate restraint.
Example
To describe the collapse of the bridge as "an engineering setback" was an understatement whose irony was not lost on those who had lost family members.
understudy
An actor who learns another's role in order to substitute if required; by extension, anyone prepared to take another's place.
Example
When the lead fell ill on opening night, her understudy delivered a performance that critics considered superior to the original casting.
undertaker
A person whose business is preparing dead bodies for burial and managing funeral arrangements.
Example
The undertaker's dignified restraint was itself a form of consolation, transforming grief into ceremony.
undertaking
A formal pledge or commitment to do something; a task or enterprise that requires effort or responsibility.
Example
Restoring the cathedral to its original state was an undertaking that would demand twenty years of meticulous research and skilled craftsmanship.
undertone
A subdued or background quality; an implicit meaning or feeling that runs beneath the surface of what is said or expressed.
Example
There was an undertone of menace in his courteous correspondence that only became legible when read against subsequent events.
underwear
Clothes that you wear under other clothes and next to the skin.
Example
I never wear underwear.
underworld
The world of criminals and organised crime; in mythology, the realm of the dead.
Example
The detective's investigation led her progressively deeper into an underworld that turned out to intersect with the city's most respectable institutions.
underwriter
A person or institution that assesses and assumes financial risk, especially in insurance, banking, or securities issuance.
Example
No underwriter would cover the expedition against the full range of risks the project entailed, forcing the team to self-insure.
undoing
The process of ruination or the cause of someone's downfall; reversal of what has been done.
Example
His refusal to delegate proved to be his undoing: by insisting on controlling every detail, he could control nothing properly.
unease
A feeling of anxiety or discomfort; a state of general worry or dissatisfaction.
Example
A pervasive unease settled over the city in the weeks before the election result, as though something irreversible were approaching.
unemployment
The fact of a number of people not having a job; the number of people without a job.
Example
an area of high/low unemployment
unification
The process of bringing separate entities together into a single whole.
Example
The economic and cultural dimensions of national unification proved far more resistant to resolution than the political framework had anticipated.
uniform
The special set of clothes worn by all members of an organization or a group at work, or by children at school.
Example
The hat is part of the school uniform.
uniformity
The quality of remaining the same in all cases and at all times; sameness throughout.
Example
The uniformity of the new housing developments was criticised as an erasure of the neighbourhood character built over generations.
union
An organization of workers, usually in a particular industry, that exists to protect their interests, improve conditions of work, etc.
Example
I've joined the union.
unison
Simultaneous performance or utterance of a sound or action; a state of complete agreement or harmony.
Example
The council voted in unison for the resolution, a unanimity that sceptics attributed to private assurances rather than genuine consensus.
unit
A single thing, person or group that is complete by itself but can also form part of something larger.
Example
After 1946 the British Government treated the four territorial divisions as a single unit.
unity
The state of being in agreement and working together; the state of being joined together to form one unit.
Example
European unity
universality
The quality of applying to or affecting all or everything; the state of being universal.
Example
The author resisted any claim to universality for her work, insisting it was rooted in a specific cultural experience that could not simply be generalised.
universe
The whole of space and everything in it, including the earth, the planets and the stars.
Example
in the universe, Could there be intelligent life elsewhere in the universe?
university
An institution at the highest level of education where you can study for a degree or do research.
Example
Is there a university in this town?
upheaval
A great or violent change or disruption to something established.
Example
The industrial upheaval of the nineteenth century displaced entire communities before the social structures needed to support them had begun to form.
upkeep
The process of keeping something in good condition; the cost of maintaining something.
Example
The upkeep of the Victorian estate consumed a disproportionate share of the charitable trust's resources, to the frustration of its beneficiaries.
uprising
An act of resistance or rebellion against an established authority or government.
Example
The uprising began as a series of localised protests but escalated within weeks into a movement that toppled a government in power for decades.
uproar
A state of noisy and confused commotion; a public expression of outrage or protest.
Example
The proposed redevelopment of the park caused an uproar among residents that no amount of public consultation appeared able to quell.
upshot
The final or eventual outcome or conclusion of a sequence of events.
Example
The upshot of three years of negotiation was an agreement so hedged with conditions that neither side could claim an unambiguous victory.
upstairs
On a floor of a house or other building that is higher than the one that you are on.
Example
an upstairs room/window/bathroom
upsurge
A sudden large increase in the occurrence or intensity of something.
Example
The upsurge in demand for mental health services overwhelmed facilities that had been chronically underfunded for over a decade.
upturn
An improvement or rise after a period of decline or low activity, especially in economic conditions.
Example
The modest upturn in employment figures was welcomed but interpreted cautiously given the structural vulnerabilities that persisted beneath the headline numbers.
urgency
The quality of being pressing and requiring immediate attention or action.
Example
The commission's report conveyed a sense of urgency that the government's measured response conspicuously failed to match.
usage
The way in which words are used in a language.
Example
a book on current English usage
use
The act of using something; the state of being used.
Example
A ban was imposed on the use of chemical weapons.
user
A person or thing that uses something.
Example
road users
usher
A person who shows people to their seats in a theatre, church, or at a formal event; one who guides others into a new phase.
Example
He served as an usher at the ceremony, a role that placed him at the intersection of institutional protocol and private grief.
usurpation
The action of taking a position of power or authority illegally or by force.
Example
The constitutional court's ruling declared the decree an unlawful usurpation of legislative authority.
utensil
A tool or vessel used for practical purposes, especially in a kitchen or for domestic tasks.
Example
The archaeologist's study of everyday utensils revealed more about domestic life in the ancient city than any written source had provided.
utilitarianism
The ethical doctrine that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Example
Critics of utilitarianism argue that it can justify inflicting serious harm on a minority whenever doing so benefits a sufficiently large majority.
utopia
An imagined place or state of things in which everything is perfect; an ideally conceived society.
Example
Every political utopia, the historian observed, had ultimately produced its own form of coercion in the attempt to realise perfection by force.
utopianism
The holding of idealistic but impractical beliefs about the possibility of creating a perfect society.
Example
The critic dismissed the proposal as utopianism, but its architects argued that all significant social progress had once seemed impractically idealistic.
utterance
A spoken word, statement, or vocal sound; the action of saying something aloud.
Example
Every utterance the minister made during the crisis was parsed for hidden commitments or unintended concessions.
vacancy
An unoccupied position, post, or accommodation; an empty space; a state of mental emptiness.
Example
The vacancy left by the chief scientist's sudden departure could not be filled quickly without compromising the integrity of the ongoing research.
vacation
A period of time spent travelling or resting away from home.
Example
on vacation, They're on vacation in Hawaii right now.
vacillation
The action of repeatedly wavering between different opinions or courses of action; indecision.
Example
The leadership's vacillation on the key policy question was read by allies and opponents alike as an absence of any real conviction.
vacuum
A space that is completely empty of all substances, including all air or other gas.
Example
a vacuum pump (= one that creates a vacuum)
vagary
An unexpected and inexplicable change in a situation or in someone's behaviour; a whimsical or unpredictable occurrence.
Example
The vagaries of the funding cycle made long-term research planning almost impossible in the humanities.
vagrant
A person without a settled home or regular work who wanders from place to place.
Example
The legislation criminalising vagrancy was criticised as a measure targeting poverty rather than addressing the conditions that produced it.
validity
The state of being legally or officially acceptable.
Example
The period of validity of the agreement has expired.
valley
An area of low land between hills or mountains, often with a river flowing through it; the land that a river flows through.
Example
in a valley, In the valley below cows were grazing peacefully.
valour
Great personal bravery, especially in the face of danger in battle.
Example
The medal was awarded posthumously in recognition of valour displayed under sustained enemy fire during the evacuation.
valuation
An estimation of the worth or value of something, particularly in financial or professional assessments.
Example
The independent valuation placed the company's assets significantly below the figure quoted in its prospectus.
value
How much something is worth in money or other goods for which it can be exchanged.
Example
to go up/rise/increase in value
van
A covered vehicle with no side windows in its back half, usually smaller than a lorry, used for carrying goods or people.
Example
the driver of a white van
vandal
A person who deliberately destroys or damages public or private property.
Example
The overnight vandal left the mural defaced but inadvertently created an image that several critics judged more interesting than the original.
vandalism
The action of deliberately destroying or damaging public or private property.
Example
The vandalism of the memorial was condemned across the political spectrum as an act targeting collective rather than partisan memory.
vanguard
A group of people leading the way in new developments or ideas; the foremost part of an advancing force.
Example
The laboratory positioned itself as the vanguard of personalised medicine, translating genetic research into clinical application faster than any rival institution.
vanity
Excessive pride in or admiration of one's own appearance or achievements; the quality of being worthless or futile.
Example
His vanity was not the crude kind that required constant flattery but the subtler variety that could not tolerate being unnoticed.
variance
The fact or quality of being different, divergent, or in conflict; in statistics, a measure of the spread of data around the mean.
Example
The variance between the two accounts was small enough to seem accidental but large enough to have determined the jury's decision.
variation
A change, especially in the amount or level of something.
Example
The dial records very slight variations in pressure.
variety
Several different sorts of the same thing.
Example
There is a wide variety of patterns to choose from.
vastness
The quality of being immense in scale, extent, or degree; immensity.
Example
The vastness of the archive, containing decades of unprocessed correspondence, daunted even the most experienced researchers.
vault
A large secure room or compartment for storing valuables; an arched roof or ceiling; a burial chamber.
Example
The documents had lain undisturbed in the vault for seventy years, their existence unknown even to the institution that held them.
vehemence
The quality of showing great intensity of feeling; forceful, passionate expression.
Example
The vehemence of her opposition to the proposal surprised colleagues who had not previously seen her deviate from studied neutrality.
vehicle
A thing that is used for transporting people or goods from one place to another, such as a car or lorry.
Example
motor vehicles (= cars, buses, lorries, etc.)
vein
Any of the tubes that carry blood from all parts of the body towards the heart.
Example
the jugular vein
velocity
The speed of something in a given direction; by extension, the pace or rate at which something occurs.
Example
The velocity of technological change had outpaced the regulatory frameworks designed to govern it by at least a decade.
velvet
A closely woven fabric with a thick, soft pile on one side; by extension, anything notably smooth or luxurious.
Example
The transition of power was achieved with the velvet glove of legal procedure rather than the iron fist of constitutional emergency.
vendetta
A prolonged bitter quarrel or campaign undertaken in retaliation for a real or imagined wrong.
Example
What began as a professional dispute hardened over years into a personal vendetta that damaged careers on both sides.
veneer
A thin decorative covering of fine material; a superficial or deceptive appearance concealing what lies beneath.
Example
Beneath the veneer of corporate respectability, the investigation revealed systematic practices that contradicted every stated value.
veneration
Great respect and reverence, especially for a person of great age, holiness, or eminence.
Example
The veneration in which the founder was held made it difficult for the organisation to subject her legacy to the critical scrutiny it needed.
vengeance
Punishment inflicted or retribution exacted for a wrong or injury; severe and unrestrained retaliation.
Example
He had waited fifteen years to publish the memoir, and it arrived with a vengeance, naming names and reproducing private correspondence.
venom
A poisonous substance secreted by animals such as snakes; by extension, extreme malice or bitterness of feeling.
Example
The venom in her public denunciation of her former mentor shocked those who had known only their years of apparent collaboration.
vent
An opening that allows air, gas, or liquid to pass into or out of a space; or, an outlet for the expression of strong emotion.
Example
Without an institutional vent for the grievances expressed in the survey, dissatisfaction continued to accumulate beneath the surface.
venue
A place where people meet for an organized event, for example a concert, sporting event or conference.
Example
The band will be playing at 20 different venues on their UK tour.
veracity
Truthfulness or accuracy, especially as a characteristic of a person or their statements.
Example
The tribunal questioned the veracity of the witness's account, noting three separate inconsistencies with earlier testimony.
verdict
An official judgement made in court or at an inquest (= an official investigation into somebody's death).
Example
Has the jury reached a verdict?
verge
The edge or border of something; the brink of an action, condition, or state.
Example
The negotiations stood on the verge of collapse when the smaller delegation tabled an unexpected compromise.
verification
The process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or validity of something; confirmation by examination or evidence.
Example
Independent verification of the underlying datasets remained the principal obstacle to publishing the disputed findings.
verisimilitude
The appearance of being true or real; convincing authenticity in artistic or literary representation.
Example
The novel's remarkable verisimilitude derived from the author's decade of research living among the community she depicted.
vermin
Wild animals or insects that are harmful or destructive and difficult to control; people regarded as despicable.
Example
The use of dehumanising language, describing political opponents as vermin, was identified by historians as a precursor to organised violence.
vernacular
The language or dialect spoken by ordinary people in a particular region or country; the common or everyday form of a language.
Example
The preacher's decision to deliver the sermon in the local vernacular rather than Latin was a deliberate act of theological and political significance.
versatility
The ability to adapt or be adapted to many different functions or activities.
Example
The material's versatility — it could be moulded, extruded, or woven — made it attractive to designers across unrelated industries.
verse
Writing that is arranged in lines, often with a regular rhythm or pattern of rhyme.
Example
in verse, Most of the play is written in verse, but some of it is in prose.
version
A form of something that is slightly different from an earlier form or from other forms of the same thing.
Example
the latest version of the software package
vertex
The highest point; the apex; in geometry, a corner or point at which two or more lines, edges, or curves meet.
Example
The argument reached its vertex in the final chapter, where all the preceding threads converged into a single, devastating conclusion.
vertigo
A sensation of dizziness and loss of balance, often associated with a fear of heights; a disorienting whirl of conflicting demands.
Example
The vertigo of suddenly being granted creative freedom, after years of working to a brief, temporarily paralysed her.
verve
Enthusiasm, vigour, and spirit, especially in artistic endeavour.
Example
The conductor brought a youthful verve to the symphony that revealed harmonic possibilities the work's previous interpreters had overlooked.
vessel
A tube that carries blood through the body of a person or an animal, or liquid through the parts of a plant.
Example
to burst/rupture a blood vessel
vestige
A trace or remnant of something that is disappearing or no longer exists.
Example
The ceremony retained only a vestige of its original meaning, preserved more from habit than from any living understanding of its significance.
veteran
A person who has a lot of experience in a particular area or activity.
Example
the veteran American actor, Clint Eastwood
veto
A constitutional right to reject a legislative decision or proposal; the exercise of such power to prevent an action.
Example
The veto was deployed not as a last resort but as a first move, signalling that no compromise on the issue would be entertained.
vexation
The state of being annoyed, frustrated, or worried; a source of irritation or trouble.
Example
The software's persistent inability to retain preferences was a minor but daily vexation that gradually eroded confidence in the entire system.
viability
The ability of something to work successfully; practical feasibility.
Example
The viability of the project depended entirely on securing a third round of funding before the end of the financial year.
vice
Criminal activities that involve sex or drugs.
Example
At the door were two plain-clothes detectives from the vice squad.
vicinity
The area near or surrounding a particular place.
Example
The presence of a major research hospital in the vicinity had transformed the neighbourhood's economy and demographic composition over two decades.
vicissitude
A change of circumstances or fortune, typically for the worse; the unpredictable alternations of life.
Example
The institution had survived every political vicissitude of the preceding century by consistently demonstrating its usefulness to whoever held power.
victim
A person who has been attacked, injured or killed as the result of a crime, a disease, an accident, etc.
Example
shooting/murder victims
victor
A person who defeats an enemy or opponent in a contest, conflict, or competition.
Example
History rarely records the precise moment at which the eventual victor ceased to fear defeat, but something decisive shifted during that winter campaign.
victory
Success in a game, an election, a war, etc.
Example
to win a narrow victory
view
What you can see from a particular place or position, especially beautiful countryside.
Example
There were magnificent views of the surrounding countryside.
viewer
A person watching television or a video on the internet.
Example
The programme attracted millions of viewers.
viewpoint
A way of thinking about a subject.
Example
from a… viewpoint, Try looking at things from a different viewpoint.
vigil
A period of staying awake to keep watch or to pray, especially at night; a public gathering to honour or protest.
Example
Hundreds gathered for the candlelit vigil outside the hospital, a silent collective refusal to accept that she would not recover.
vigilance
The action or state of keeping careful watch for possible danger or difficulties.
Example
The security team's vigilance had prevented several incursions, but sustained alertness at that level could not be maintained indefinitely.
vigilante
A member of a self-appointed group that undertakes law enforcement without legal authority.
Example
The rise of vigilante patrols was seen less as a solution to crime than as a symptom of the community's collapse of faith in official institutions.
vigour
Physical strength and good health; active force or energy in thought, feeling, or expression.
Example
She returned from six months of sabbatical with a vigour and intellectual appetite that transformed the atmosphere of the department.
vilification
The act of speaking or writing about someone in a highly critical or abusive manner intended to damage their reputation.
Example
The vilification of the expert witnesses during the inquest was designed to discredit the science rather than to engage with its findings.
village
A very small town located in a country area.
Example
We visited towns and villages all over Spain.
villain
A person or character whose wicked actions or motives form a central element in a story or situation.
Example
The memoir's most controversial choice was to deny the reader a clear villain, attributing the catastrophe instead to systemic failure.
villainy
Wicked or criminal behaviour; the character or qualities of a villain.
Example
The playwright was less interested in individual villainy than in the social conditions that enabled and rewarded it.
vindication
The action of clearing someone of blame or suspicion; proof that someone or something is right, reasonable, or justified.
Example
The posthumous vindication of the scientist whose findings had been dismissed as fraudulent came too late to restore her career or reputation.
vindictiveness
The quality of having a strong desire to harm someone who has done wrong to oneself; spitefulness.
Example
What distinguished the policy from mere institutional incompetence was its vindictiveness — it targeted those who had publicly criticised the administration.
vintage
The year in which wine was produced; by extension, a thing of high quality from a particular period.
Example
The speech was regarded as a vintage performance from a politician whose abilities had been widely underestimated.
violation
The act of going against or refusing to obey a law, an agreement, etc.
Example
They were in open violation of the treaty.
violence
Violent behaviour that is intended to hurt or kill somebody.
Example
Police do not think this killing was a random act of violence.
violent
Involving or caused by physical force that is intended to hurt or kill somebody.
Example
violent crime/criminals
viper
A venomous snake; a person or thing regarded as dangerous, treacherous, or spiteful.
Example
He had nurtured a viper in his inner circle for years, sharing every confidence with someone who was systematically betraying them.
virtue
Behaviour or attitudes that show high moral standards.
Example
He led a life of virtue.
virtuosity
Great skill and technique, especially in a musical or other artistic performance.
Example
The violinist's virtuosity was beyond question, but it was the emotional depth beneath the technical mastery that silenced the hall.
virtuoso
A person with exceptional skill, especially in music or another artistic field.
Example
As a negotiating virtuoso, she could simultaneously hold the interests of four conflicting parties and move each incrementally toward agreement.
virulence
The degree to which a pathogen is infectious or harmful; extreme bitterness or malice in opinion or expression.
Example
The virulence of the online attacks directed at the researcher escalated sharply once her findings were cited in a major policy debate.
virus
A living thing, too small to be seen without a microscope, that causes disease in people, animals and plants.
Example
the flu/influenza virus
visa
A stamp or mark put in your passport by officials of a foreign country that gives you permission to enter, pass through or leave their country.
Example
to apply for a visa
visage
A person's face, with particular reference to its shape or expression.
Example
The portrait captured not merely the sitter's visage but the quality of restrained authority that made subordinates instinctively fall silent in her presence.
vision
The ability to see; the area that you can see from a particular position.
Example
to have good/perfect/poor/blurred/normal vision
visionary
A person with original ideas about what the future could or should be like.
Example
Whether she was a visionary or a self-promoter depended entirely on whether her predictions eventually proved correct.
visit
An occasion or a period of time when somebody goes to see a place or person and spends time there.
Example
a two-day/three-day visit
visitor
A person who visits a person or place.
Example
We've got visitors coming this weekend.
vista
A pleasing view, especially one seen through a long, narrow opening; a mental view of an extensive period of time or series of events.
Example
The summit opened onto a vista of unbroken forest stretching to the horizon, unmarked by any evidence of the century's intrusions.
vitality
The state of being strong, active, and full of energy; the power giving continuance of life, especially under difficult conditions.
Example
The city's cultural vitality in the post-war period was inseparable from the immigration that successive governments had sought to restrict.
vitamin
A natural substance found in food that is an essential part of what humans and animals need to help them grow and stay healthy. There are many different vitamins.
Example
vitamin A/B/D/E
vivacity
The quality of being attractively lively and animated.
Example
The vivacity she brought to the seminar room transformed what might have been a dry methodological discussion into something genuinely stimulating.
vocation
A strong feeling of suitability for a particular career or occupation; a calling, especially one of a religious nature.
Example
She described medicine not as a profession but a vocation, a distinction that her colleagues found either inspiring or professionally inconvenient.
vogue
The prevailing fashion or style; a period of popularity.
Example
The vogue for behavioural economics had, by the turn of the decade, begun to attract the same sceptical scrutiny it had applied to its predecessors.
voice
The sound or sounds produced through the mouth by a person speaking or singing.
Example
I could hear voices in the next room.
volatility
Liability to change rapidly and unpredictably, especially for the worse; in finance, the tendency of markets to fluctuate sharply.
Example
The volatility of commodity prices made long-term planning impossible for economies that had not diversified their export base.
volition
The faculty or power of using one's will; the making of a conscious choice.
Example
She emphasised that the decision had been made of her own volition, without pressure from any party, domestic or external.
volley
A series of projectiles fired or discharged at one time; a rapid burst of spoken words or questions.
Example
The press conference erupted into a volley of simultaneous questions that the minister silenced with a single raised hand.
volume
The amount of space that an object or a substance fills; the amount of space that a container has.
Example
How do you measure the volume of a gas?
volunteer
A person who does a job without being paid for it.
Example
Schools need volunteers to help children to read.
vortex
A mass of whirling fluid or air, especially a whirlpool; any situation that draws everything into its powerful centre.
Example
The conflict created a vortex of displacement from which neighbouring states were unable to insulate themselves regardless of declared neutrality.
vote
A formal choice that you make in an election or at a meeting in order to choose somebody or decide something.
Example
to win/lose votes
voting
The action of choosing somebody/something in an election or at a meeting.
Example
He was eliminated in the first round of voting.
voucher
A small printed piece of paper that entitles the holder to a discount or that may be exchanged for goods; a document confirming a transaction.
Example
The voucher scheme was designed to give low-income families the same purchasing power in education markets as wealthier households already possessed.
vow
A solemn and serious promise, often made publicly or as part of a ceremony.
Example
They exchanged vows at a small ceremony in the garden.
voyeur
A person who gains pleasure from observing others' private moments; someone who takes prurient interest in others' misfortunes.
Example
The documentary was criticised as voyeurism masquerading as social journalism, presenting poverty as spectacle without structural analysis.
vulgarity
The quality of being crude, offensive, or lacking in taste or refinement.
Example
The critic identified in the novel not mere vulgarity but a deliberate deployment of the vulgar as a weapon against literary pretension.
wage
A regular amount of money that you earn, usually every week or every month, for work or services.
Example
wages of £300 a week
waiter
A man whose job is to serve customers at their tables in a restaurant, etc.
Example
I'll ask the waiter for the bill.
waiver
An act or instance of voluntarily relinquishing a known right or claim; a document recording such a decision.
Example
Signing the liability waiver was presented as a formality, though its legal implications in the event of injury were far from trivial.
walk
A journey on foot, usually for pleasure or exercise.
Example
Let's go for a walk.
walkout
A sudden departure from a meeting or organisation as a form of protest; a strike by workers.
Example
The walkout by the entire delegation transformed a diplomatic impasse into a full-scale international incident.
wall
A long, solid structure that rises straight up from the ground, made of stone, brick or concrete, that surrounds, divides or protects an area of land.
Example
to build a wall
wantonness
The quality of being deliberate and unprovoked in causing harm or acting without moral restraint; reckless disregard.
Example
The destruction of the ancient site was condemned not merely as vandalism but as wantonness — it served no strategic purpose whatsoever.
war
A situation in which two or more countries or groups of people fight against each other over a period of time.
Example
the Second World War
warden
A person responsible for supervising a particular place or group of people; the chief official of a prison.
Example
The warden's reforms reduced reoffending rates significantly, demonstrating what was possible when rehabilitation was taken as seriously as containment.
warlord
A military commander exercising civil power in a region by force, typically in the absence of legitimate government authority.
Example
The fragmentation of the state created the conditions in which every regional warlord became a de facto authority with no accountability to the population.
warming
The process of making something, or of becoming, warm or warmer.
Example
atmospheric warming
warning
A statement, an event, etc. telling somebody that something bad or unpleasant may happen in the future so that they can try to avoid it.
Example
I had absolutely no warning.
warranty
A written guarantee issued to the purchaser of an article by its manufacturer promising to repair or replace it if necessary; a justification or grounds for an action.
Example
The warranty's exclusions were so extensive that it offered less protection than the standard statutory rights it was implicitly intended to supersede.
washing
The act of cleaning something using water and usually soap.
Example
a gentle shampoo for frequent washing
waste
The act of using something in a careless or unnecessary way, causing it to be lost or destroyed.
Example
I hate unnecessary waste.
wasteland
A barren or empty area of land; a place or situation regarded as spiritually, culturally, or intellectually empty.
Example
The novel presents modern suburbia as a wasteland not of material deprivation but of meaning, community, and authentic human connection.
watch
A type of small clock that you wear on your wrist, or (in the past) carried in your pocket.
Example
She kept looking anxiously at her watch.
watchdog
A dog kept to guard premises; a person or organisation that monitors the practices of companies or governments.
Example
The independent watchdog concluded that the regulator had been captured by the industry it was nominally overseeing.
watchword
A word or phrase capturing a guiding principle; a password or slogan used by a group.
Example
Transparency became the watchword of the new administration, though critics noted that genuine transparency had yet to accompany the rhetoric.
water
A liquid without colour, smell or taste that falls as rain, is in lakes, rivers and seas, and is used for drinking, washing, etc.
Example
a glass of water
watershed
An area of land that drains into a river; a turning point marking a decisive change in a situation.
Example
The ruling was widely regarded as a watershed in employment law, establishing a precedent that would reshape workplace rights for decades.
wave
A raised line of water that moves across the surface of the sea, ocean, etc.
Example
Huge waves were breaking on the shore.
way
A method, style or manner of doing something.
Example
I prefer to do things the easy way.
waywardness
The tendency to behave in an unpredictable or difficult-to-control manner; disobedient wilfulness.
Example
His intellectual waywardness — following arguments wherever they led regardless of disciplinary boundaries — alarmed colleagues but produced extraordinary work.
weakness
Lack of physical strength.
Example
The disease causes progressive muscle weakness.
wealth
A large amount of money, property, etc. that a person or country owns.
Example
the desire to gain wealth and power
weapon
An object such as a knife, gun, bomb, etc. that is used for fighting or attacking somebody.
Example
Modern nuclear weapons are much more destructive than either biological or chemical weapons.
weaponry
Weapons collectively; the implements and technology used for warfare or conflict.
Example
The sophistication of the weaponry recovered at the scene indicated links to state-level military suppliers rather than domestic criminal networks.
weariness
Extreme tiredness resulting from sustained physical or mental effort; an impatient boredom caused by repetition.
Example
There was a weariness in her testimony — not dishonesty, but the exhaustion of someone who had told the same true story too many times.
web
A system for finding information on the internet, in which documents are connected to other documents.
Example
to surf/browse/search the web
website
A set of pages on the internet, where a company or an organization, or an individual person, puts information.
Example
For current prices please visit our website.
wedding
A marriage ceremony, and the meal or party that usually follows it.
Example
I dreamed of having a big wedding, with all my family and friends.
wedlock
The state of being married; matrimony.
Example
The legal and social consequences of children born outside wedlock had changed almost beyond recognition across a single generation.
Wednesday
The day of the week after Tuesday and before Thursday.
Example
It's Wednesday today, isn't it?
weekend
Saturday and Sunday.
Example
this/next/last weekend
weight
How heavy somebody/something is, which can be measured in, for example, kilograms or pounds.
Example
in weight, It is about 76 kilos in weight.
welfare
The general health, happiness and safety of a person, an animal or a group.
Example
We are concerned about the child's welfare.
west
The direction that you look towards to see the sun go down; one of the four main points of the compass.
Example
Which way is west?
wharf
A level quayside area to which a ship may be moored to load and unload cargo.
Example
The converted wharf now housed galleries, restaurants, and offices where dockers had once unloaded timber and grain.
wheat
A plant grown for its grain that is used to produce the flour for bread, cakes, pasta, etc.; the grain of this plant.
Example
wheat flour
wheel
One of the round objects under a car, bicycle, bus, etc. that turns when it moves.
Example
He braked suddenly, causing the front wheels to skid.
wherewithal
The money, resources, or means needed for a particular purpose.
Example
Many households affected by the flooding lacked the wherewithal to rebuild without substantial state support.
whim
A sudden desire or change of mind, especially one that is unusual or unexplained.
Example
The policy seemed to change on a daily basis, driven more by the director's whim than by any coherent strategic framework.
whimsy
Playfully quaint or fanciful behaviour or humour; a tendency toward capricious fancy.
Example
The architect's early work embraced whimsy without sacrificing structural rigour, a combination that later generations found difficult to replicate.
whirlpool
A rapidly rotating mass of water that draws objects into its centre; any situation of confused, irresistible movement.
Example
Once drawn into the whirlpool of the legal system, extracting herself had taken three years, two appeals, and considerable financial damage.
whirlwind
A column of air moving rapidly in a spiral; anything resembling this in speed and turbulent energy.
Example
The candidate conducted a whirlwind of campaign appearances across seventeen states in eleven days, arriving each morning fresh and departing each night exhausted.
whistleblower
A person who informs on an organisation engaged in illicit activity, typically from within that organisation.
Example
The whistleblower's disclosures prompted a parliamentary inquiry that ultimately resulted in the largest corporate fine in the regulator's history.
white
The colour of fresh snow or of milk.
Example
various shades of white
whitewash
A deliberate concealment of mistakes or faults; a superficial remedy that avoids addressing underlying problems.
Example
Opposition parties dismissed the internal review as a whitewash, noting that all those tasked with conducting it reported to those being investigated.
wickedness
The quality of being morally wrong, evil, or cruel.
Example
The tribunal found that the acts constituted not merely wrongdoing but a wickedness that placed them beyond the usual register of administrative failure.
wife
The woman that somebody is married to; a married woman.
Example
I met my wife at university.
wilderness
An uncultivated, uninhabited region; a period of political or professional obscurity.
Example
After a decade in the political wilderness, her return to cabinet was interpreted as an acknowledgement that the party had run out of alternatives.
wildfire
A rapidly spreading fire in an area of open country; anything that spreads or develops with extraordinary speed.
Example
The rumour spread like wildfire through the financial markets, triggering a sell-off before any official confirmation had been issued.
wildlife
Animals, birds, insects, etc. that are wild and live in a natural environment.
Example
policies designed to protect wildlife
willfulness
Deliberate, often obstinate determination to do something one's own way regardless of consequences or others' wishes.
Example
The court found that the willfulness of the violation, rather than its mere occurrence, justified the elevated penalty.
wind
Air that moves quickly across the surface of the earth.
Example
A strong wind was blowing through the trees.
windfall
An unexpected piece of good fortune, especially a sudden financial gain.
Example
The unexpected sale of the surplus portfolio produced a windfall that allowed the foundation to expand its grant programme.
window
An opening in the wall or roof of a building, car, etc., usually covered with glass, that allows light and air to come in and people to see out; the glass in a window.
Example
out of the window, She looked out of the window.
wine
An alcoholic drink made from the juice of grapes that has been left to ferment. There are many different kinds of wine.
Example
sparkling wine
wing
One of the parts of the body of a bird, insect or bat that it uses for flying.
Example
The swan flapped its wings noisily.
winner
A person, a team, an animal, etc. that wins something.
Example
The lucky winner gets an all-expenses-paid trip to Sydney.
winter
The coldest season of the year, between autumn and spring.
Example
a cold/mild/harsh winter
wire
Metal in the form of thin thread; a piece of this.
Example
a coil of copper wire
wisdom
The ability to make sensible decisions and give good advice because of the experience and knowledge that you have.
Example
She was known to be a woman of great wisdom.
wisp
A small, thin, or insubstantial amount or piece of something.
Example
Only a wisp of the morning's optimism survived the discovery, by mid-afternoon, that the audit had been comprehensively misfiled.
wistfulness
A feeling of vague or regretful longing for something, typically something in the past.
Example
There was a wistfulness in her description of her early career that suggested she had not entirely reconciled herself to the choices success had required.
witchcraft
The practice of magic, especially black magic; the use of spells, charms, or supposed supernatural power.
Example
Accusations of witchcraft, the historian argued, were historically a mechanism for persecuting those who threatened or defied established social norms.
witness
A person who sees something happen and is able to describe it to other people.
Example
He failed to interview a key witness.
witticism
A witty remark, especially one that is both clever and amusing.
Example
His after-dinner witticisms were celebrated but carefully rehearsed — the spontaneity was an effect rather than an accident.
wizardry
The art or practice of magic; remarkable skill in a particular field.
Example
The defence's financial wizardry, turning reported losses into apparent profits, had taken forensic accountants months to unravel.
woe
Great sorrow or distress; the afflictions or troubles of a situation.
Example
The report catalogued the organisation's woes with a thoroughness that left no one in any doubt about the scale of the institutional failure.
wolf
A wild carnivorous mammal of the dog family living and hunting in packs.
Example
The wolf howled in the forest.
woman
An adult female human.
Example
a 54-year-old woman
wonder
A feeling of surprise and pleasure that you have when you see or experience something beautiful, unusual or unexpected.
Example
He retained a childlike sense of wonder.
wood
The hard material that the trunk and branches of a tree are made of; this material when it is used to build or make things with, or as a fuel.
Example
He chopped some wood for the fire.
wool
The soft hair that covers the body of sheep and some other animals.
Example
Sheep were kept for their wool and meat.
word
A single unit of language that means something and can be spoken or written.
Example
Do not write more than 200 words.
wordiness
The use of more words than are necessary to convey meaning; verbosity.
Example
The editor's principal complaint was wordiness, and three rounds of compression eventually produced the manuscript that went to press.
work
The job that a person does especially in order to earn money.
Example
He started work as a security guard.
worker
A person who works, especially one who does a particular kind of work.
Example
farm/factory/office workers
workforce
All the people who work for a particular company, organization, etc.
Example
The factory has a 1 000-strong workforce.
workmanship
The degree of skill with which a product is made; the quality of something made by hand or tool.
Example
The workmanship evident in every joint and surface of the cabinet was the signature of a craftsperson who regarded speed as irrelevant to the task.
workplace
The office, factory, etc. where people work.
Example
the introduction of new technology into the workplace
workshop
A period of discussion and practical work on a particular subject, in which a group of people share their knowledge and experience.
Example
There will be the opportunity for practical theatre work in drama workshops.
world
The earth, with all its countries, peoples and natural features.
Example
a map of the world
worm
A long, thin creature with a soft body and no bones or legs.
Example
birds looking for worms
worth
An amount of something that has the value mentioned.
Example
The winner will receive fifty pounds' worth of books.
wound
An injury to part of the body, especially one in which a hole is made in the skin using a weapon.
Example
a gunshot/stab wound
wrath
Extreme anger, especially divine punishment or retribution.
Example
She had endured years of institutional injustice with patience, and when her wrath finally broke, it was all the more formidable for having been contained so long.
wreckage
The remains of something that has been damaged or destroyed; the aftermath of a catastrophic failure.
Example
The inquiry was charged with assessing the wreckage of the financial system and determining which structural reforms could prevent a recurrence.
wrist
The joint between the hand and the arm.
Example
She's broken her wrist.
writer
A person whose job is writing books, stories, articles, etc.
Example
Who's your favourite writer?
writing
The activity of writing, in contrast to reading, speaking, etc.
Example
Our son’s having problems with his reading and writing (= at school)
wrongdoer
A person who behaves illegally or immorally; someone who commits a wrong against others.
Example
The legislation was criticised for making it easier to compensate victims while simultaneously making it harder to identify and punish wrongdoers.
xenophobe
A person who fears, dislikes, or is prejudiced against people from other countries.
Example
The historian was careful to distinguish the xenophobes among the founding generation from those whose views had evolved late in life.
xenophobia
Dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries.
Example
The campaign's barely coded xenophobia was recognised immediately by minority communities who had heard the same rhetoric deployed before.
yard
A piece of land next to or around your house where you can grow flowers, fruit, vegetables, etc., usually with a lawn (= an area of grass).
Example
They have a gorgeous old oak tree in their front yard.
yardstick
A standard used for comparison or judgement; a measuring stick a yard in length.
Example
GDP remains the dominant yardstick for national success despite decades of well-founded criticism of its failure to capture human welfare or sustainability.
yarn
Spun thread used for knitting, weaving, or sewing; informally, a long or implausible story.
Example
Over a long evening he spun a yarn about his early years that none of those present quite knew how to receive.
year
The period from 1 January to 31 December, that is 365 or 366 days, divided into 12 months.
Example
Elections take place every year.
yearning
A feeling of intense longing for something, typically something one cannot easily attain.
Example
The novel maps with extraordinary precision the yearning of a generation that grew up amid abundance but found themselves unable to locate meaning within it.
yellow
The colour of lemons or butter.
Example
She was dressed in yellow.
yesterday
The day before today.
Example
Yesterday was Sunday.
yoke
A wooden crosspiece fastened over the necks of two animals; any burdensome oppression or constraint.
Example
The negotiators insisted that any agreement removing the yoke of foreign debt must also include structural safeguards against its reimposition.
yokel
A naive or unsophisticated person from a rural area, often used pejoratively.
Example
The film resisted the temptation to depict its rural characters as yokels, granting them an interior life that urban audiences found unexpectedly affecting.
youth
The time of life when a person is young, especially the time before a child becomes an adult.
Example
He had been a talented musician in his youth.
zeal
Great energy or enthusiasm directed towards a cause or objective.
Example
The investigator pursued the case with a zeal that some colleagues admired and others regarded as an obstacle to pragmatic resolution.
zealot
A person who is fanatical and uncompromising in pursuit of their religious, political, or other ideals.
Example
He was not a zealot but a pragmatist, willing to compromise on tactics as long as the core objective remained non-negotiable.
zealotry
Fanatical and uncompromising pursuit of religious, political, or ideological ideals.
Example
The movement's initial idealism had curdled, over two decades, into a zealotry that made reasoned internal dissent almost impossible.
zeitgeist
The defining spirit or mood of a particular period of history as expressed in the ideas and beliefs of the time.
Example
The novel captured the zeitgeist so precisely that it seemed less a work of imagination than a cultural document assembled from the era's own materials.
zenith
The highest point reached by a celestial body; the time at which something is most powerful or successful.
Example
At the zenith of her influence, her endorsement could shift the outcome of a primary race within forty-eight hours.
zest
Great enthusiasm and energy; the outer peel of a citrus fruit used as flavouring.
Example
She approached even the most routine administrative tasks with a zest that her colleagues found either infectious or exhausting depending on the day.
zigzag
A line or course that turns sharply from side to side at angles.
Example
The drone's zigzag through the canyon mapped a topography that satellite imagery had been unable to resolve.
zodiac
A belt of the heavens divided into twelve equal parts, each named after a constellation, used in astrology to describe the position of celestial bodies.
Example
The historian traced the zodiac's appearance in medieval manuscripts as a window onto the period's blending of astronomy and theology.
zoology
The scientific study of animals, including their structure, classification, behaviour, and distribution.
Example
Her career bridged zoology and ecology in ways that subsequent generations found increasingly difficult to replicate.