C1 Nouns
C1 noun vocabulary in alphabetical order with definitions and example sentences.
abortion
The deliberate ending of a pregnancy at an early stage.
Example
to support/oppose abortion
absence
The fact of somebody being away from a place where they are usually expected to be; the occasion or period of time when somebody is away.
Example
The decision was made in my absence (= while I was not there).
academy
A school or college for special training.
Example
She trained at the Royal Academy of Music.
acceptance
The act of accepting a gift, an invitation, an offer, etc.
Example
Please confirm your acceptance of this offer in writing.
accomplishment
An impressive thing that is done or achieved after a lot of work.
Example
It was one of the President's greatest accomplishments.
accountability
The fact of being responsible for your decisions or actions and expected to explain them when you are asked.
Example
proposals for greater police accountability
accumulation
The process of gradually increasing or getting more and more of something over a period of time.
Example
the accumulation of wealth
accusation
A statement saying that you think a person is guilty of doing something wrong or illegal; the fact of accusing somebody.
Example
I don't want to make an accusation until I have some proof.
accused
A person who is on trial for committing a crime.
Example
The accused was found innocent.
acquisition
The act of getting something, especially knowledge, a skill, etc.
Example
theories of child language acquisition
acre
A unit for measuring an area of land; 4 840 square yards or about 4 050 square metres.
Example
3 000 acres of parkland
activation
The act of making something such as a device or chemical process start working.
Example
The activation of several target genes results in two major effects.
activist
A person who works to achieve political or social change, especially as a member of an organization with particular aims.
Example
human/civil/animal rights activists
adaptation
The action or process of changing something, or of being changed, to suit a new purpose or situation.
Example
the adaptation of buildings for military purposes
adjustment
A small change made to something in order to correct or improve it.
Example
I've made a few adjustments to the design.
administrator
A person whose job is to manage and organize the public or business affairs of a company or an institution, or a person who works in an office dealing with records, accounts, etc.
Example
Such organizational decisions are made by the hospital administrators.
admission
The act of accepting somebody into an institution, organization, etc.; the right to enter a place or to join an institution or organization.
Example
Hospital admission is not necessary in most cases.
adolescent
A young person who is developing from a child into an adult.
Example
adolescents between the ages of 13 and 18 and the problems they face
adoption
The act of adopting a child; the fact of being adopted.
Example
She put the baby up for adoption.
affection
The feeling of liking or loving somebody/something very much and caring about them.
Example
Children need lots of love and affection.
aftermath
The situation that exists as a result of an important (and usually unpleasant) event, especially a war, an accident, etc.
Example
A lot of rebuilding took place in the aftermath of the war.
aggression
Feelings of anger and hate that may result in threatening or violent behaviour.
Example
The research shows that computer games may cause aggression.
allegation
A public statement that is made without giving proof, accusing somebody of doing something that is wrong or illegal.
Example
to investigate/deny/withdraw an allegation
alliance
An agreement between countries, political parties, etc. to work together in order to achieve something that they all want.
Example
to form/make an alliance
allocation
An amount of money, space, etc. that is given to somebody for a particular purpose.
Example
We have spent our entire allocation for the year.
allowance
An amount of money that is given to somebody regularly or for a particular purpose.
Example
an allowance of $20 a day
ally
A country that has agreed to help and support another country, especially in case of a war.
Example
our European/NATO allies
aluminum
A lightweight silvery-white metal.
Example
Cans are often made of aluminum.
ambassador
An official who lives in a foreign country as the senior representative there of their own country.
Example
the British Ambassador to Italy/in Rome
amendment
A small change or improvement that is made to a document or proposed new law; the process of changing a document or proposed new law.
Example
to introduce/propose/table an amendment (= to suggest it)
analogy
A comparison of one thing with another thing that has similar features; a feature that is similar.
Example
analogy (between A and B), The teacher drew an analogy between the human heart and a pump.
anchor
A heavy metal object that is attached to a rope or chain and dropped over the side of a ship or boat to keep it in one place.
Example
to drop anchor
angel
A spirit who is believed to be a servant of God, and is sent by God to deliver a message or perform a task. Angels are often shown dressed in white, with wings.
Example
a host of angels
apparatus
The tools or other pieces of equipment that are needed for a particular activity or task.
Example
a piece of laboratory apparatus
appetite
Physical desire for food.
Example
He suffered from headaches and loss of appetite.
appreciation
Pleasure that you have when you recognize and enjoy the good qualities of somebody/something.
Example
She shows little appreciation of good music.
archive
A collection of historical documents or records of a government, a family, a place or an organization; the place where these records are stored.
Example
the National Sound Archive
arena
A place with a flat open area in the middle and seats around it where people can watch sports and entertainment.
Example
a concert at Wembley Arena
array
A group or collection of things or people, often one that is large or impressive.
Example
a vast array of bottles of different shapes and sizes
ash
The grey or black powder that is left after something, especially tobacco, wood or coal, has burnt.
Example
cigarette ash
aspiration
A strong desire to have or do something.
Example
I didn't realize you had political aspirations.
assassination
The murder of an important or famous person, especially for political reasons.
Example
The president survived a number of assassination attempts.
assault
The crime of attacking somebody physically.
Example
Both men were charged with assault.
assembly
A group of people who have been elected to meet together regularly and make decisions or laws for a particular region or country.
Example
state/legislative/federal/local assemblies
assertion
A statement saying that you strongly believe something to be true.
Example
He was correct in his assertion that the minister had been lying.
assurance
A statement that something will certainly be true or will certainly happen, particularly when there has been doubt about it.
Example
They called for assurances that the government is committed to its education policy.
asylum
Protection that a government gives to people who have left their own country, usually because they were in danger for political reasons.
Example
to seek/apply for/be granted asylum
atrocity
A cruel and violent act, especially in a war.
Example
In the war, both sides committed atrocities.
attendance
The act of being present at a place, for example at school.
Example
Attendance at these lectures is not compulsory.
attorney
A lawyer, especially one who can act for somebody in court.
Example
The prosecuting attorney began with a short opening statement.
auto
A car.
Example
the auto industry
autonomy
The freedom for a country, a region or an organization to govern itself independently.
Example
a campaign in Wales for greater autonomy
availability
The fact that something is possible to get, buy or find.
Example
the availability of cheap flights
backdrop
Everything that can be seen around an event or scene.
Example
The mountains provided a dramatic backdrop for our picnic.
backing
Help and support from somebody to do something; financial support for something.
Example
The police gave the proposals their full backing.
backup
Extra help or support that you can get if necessary.
Example
The police had backup from the army.
bail
Money that somebody agrees to pay if a person accused of a crime does not appear at their trial. When bail has been arranged, the accused person is allowed to go free until the trial.
Example
Can anyone put up bail for you?
ballot
The system of voting in writing and usually in secret; an occasion on which a vote is held.
Example
The chairperson is chosen by secret ballot.
bankruptcy
The state of being completely lacking in a particular quality or value.
Example
The company filed for bankruptcy.
banner
A long piece of cloth with a message on it that is carried between two poles or hung in a public place to show support for something.
Example
A huge banner over the street said ‘Welcome home’.
barrel
A large round container, usually made of wood or metal, with flat ends and, usually, curved sides.
Example
a beer/wine barrel
bass
The lowest tone or part in music, for instruments or voices.
Example
He always plays his stereo with the bass turned right up.
battlefield
A place where a battle is being fought or has been fought.
Example
heavy casualties on the battlefield
bay
A part of the sea, or of a large lake, partly surrounded by a wide curve of the land.
Example
the Bay of Bengal
beam
A line of light, electromagnetic waves or particles.
Example
narrow beams of light/sunlight
beast
An animal, especially one that is large or dangerous, or one that is unusual.
Example
wild/savage/ferocious beasts
behalf
In order to help somebody.
Example
He began a petition in behalf of the farmers.
bench
A long seat for two or more people, usually made of wood.
Example
a park bench
benchmark
Something that can be measured and used as a standard that other things can be compared with.
Example
Tests at the age of seven provide a benchmark against which the child's progress at school can be measured.
beverage
A drink.
Example
The restaurant offers a variety of beverages.
bishop
A senior priest in charge of the work of the Church in a city or district.
Example
the Bishop of Oxford
blade
The flat part of a knife, tool or machine, which has a sharp edge or edges for cutting.
Example
The machine comes with a plastic guard over the blade to protect the operator.
blast
An explosion or a powerful movement of air caused by an explosion.
Example
a bomb blast
bonus
An extra amount of money that is added to a payment, especially to somebody’s wages or salary as a reward.
Example
a £100 Christmas bonus
boom
A sudden increase in trade and economic activity; a period of wealth and success.
Example
Living standards improved rapidly during the post-war boom.
boundary
A real or imagined line that marks the limits or edges of something and separates it from other things or places; a dividing line.
Example
After the war the national boundaries were redrawn.
breach
A failure to do something that must be done by law.
Example
a breach of contract/copyright/warranty
breakdown
An occasion when a vehicle or machine stops working.
Example
a breakdown on the motorway
breakthrough
An important development that may lead to an agreement or achievement.
Example
to make/achieve a breakthrough
broadband
A way of connecting to the internet that allows you to receive information, including pictures, etc., very quickly and that is always active (so that the user does not have to connect each time).
Example
plans to provide rural areas with fast broadband
browser
A computer program that lets you look at or read documents on the World Wide Web.
Example
What do you use as your default browser?
buffer
A thing or person that reduces a shock or protects somebody/something against difficulties.
Example
Support from family and friends acts as a buffer against stress.
bulk
The main part of something; most of something.
Example
The bulk of the population lives in cities.
burden
A duty, responsibility, etc. that causes worry, difficulty or hard work.
Example
to bear/carry/ease/reduce/share the burden
bureaucracy
The system of official rules and ways of doing things that a government or an organization has, especially when these seem to be too complicated.
Example
unnecessary/excessive bureaucracy
burial
The act or ceremony of burying a dead body.
Example
a burial place/mound/site
burst
A sudden brief outbreak or display of something, such as activity, sound, or feeling.
Example
There was a sudden burst of laughter from the next room.
cabinet
A group of senior members of a government that is responsible for advising and deciding on government policy.
Example
a cabinet meeting
calculation
The act or process of using numbers to find out an amount.
Example
Cathy did a rough calculation.
canvas
A strong heavy rough material used for making tents, sails, etc. and by artists for painting on.
Example
tents made from heavy canvas
capability
The ability or qualities necessary to do something.
Example
Age affects the range of a person's capabilities.
cargo
The goods carried in a ship, an aircraft or a motor vehicle.
Example
The tanker began to spill its cargo of oil.
carriage
A separate section of a train for carrying passengers.
Example
a railway carriage
casino
A public building or room where people play gambling games for money.
Example
a new hotel and casino in Las Vegas
casualty
A person who is killed or injured in war or in an accident.
Example
Our primary objective is reducing road casualties.
catalog
A complete list of items, typically arranged systematically.
Example
The library has an online catalog.
cattle
Cows and bulls that are kept as farm animals for their milk or meat.
Example
a herd of cattle
caution
Care that you take in order to avoid danger or mistakes; the fact of not taking any risks.
Example
extreme/great caution
cemetery
An area of land used for burying dead people, especially one that is not next to a church.
Example
He was buried in a private cemetery.
chamber
A hall in a public building that is used for formal meetings.
Example
The members left the council chamber.
chaos
A complete lack of order.
Example
economic/political/domestic chaos
charm
The power of pleasing or attracting people.
Example
He was a man of great charm.
chunk
A thick, solid piece that has been cut or broken off something.
Example
a chunk of cheese/masonry
circulation
The movement of blood around the body.
Example
Regular exercise will improve blood circulation.
citizenship
The legal right to belong to a particular country.
Example
They were granted full French citizenship.
civilian
A person who is not a member of the armed forces or the police.
Example
Two soldiers and one civilian were killed in the explosion.
clarity
The quality of being expressed clearly.
Example
a lack of clarity in the law
classification
The act or process of putting people or things into a group or class (= of classifying them).
Example
a style of music that defies classification (= is like no other)
cluster
A group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together.
Example
The telescope is focused on a dense cluster of stars at the edge of the galaxy.
coalition
A government formed by two or more political parties working together.
Example
The two parties have formed a coalition.
cocktail
A drink usually made from a mixture of one or more spirits (= strong alcoholic drinks) and fruit juice. It can also be made without alcohol.
Example
a cocktail bar/cabinet/lounge/shaker
collaboration
The act of working with another person or group of people to create or produce something.
Example
It was a collaboration that produced extremely useful results.
collision
An accident in which two vehicles or people crash into each other.
Example
collision between A and B, a collision between two trains
commentary
A spoken description of an event that is given while it is happening, especially on the radio or television.
Example
a sports commentary
commentator
A person who describes an event while it is happening, especially on television or radio.
Example
a television/sports commentator
commerce
Trade, especially between countries; the buying and selling of goods and services.
Example
Leaders of industry and commerce met at the summit in Paris.
commissioner
A member of a commission (= an official group of people who are responsible for controlling something or finding out about something).
Example
the Church Commissioners (= the group of people responsible for controlling the financial affairs of the Church of England)
commodity
A product or a raw material that can be bought and sold.
Example
rice, flour and other basic commodities
companion
A person or an animal that travels with you or spends a lot of time with you.
Example
travelling companions
compassion
A strong feeling of sympathy for people or animals who are suffering and a desire to help them.
Example
to feel/show compassion
compensation
Something, especially money, that somebody gives you because they have hurt you, or damaged something that you own; the act of giving this to somebody.
Example
to claim/award/receive compensation
competence
The ability to do something well.
Example
to gain a high level of competence in English
complement
A thing that completes or goes well with something else, often by providing a contrast or pair.
Example
A crisp white wine is the perfect complement to seafood.
complexity
The state of being formed of many parts; the state of being difficult to understand.
Example
the increasing complexity of modern telecommunication systems
compliance
The practice of obeying rules or requests made by people in authority.
Example
procedures that must be followed to ensure full compliance with the law
complication
A thing that makes a situation more complicated or difficult.
Example
The bad weather added a further complication to our journey.
composition
The different parts that something is made of; the way in which the different parts are organized.
Example
the chemical composition of the soil
compromise
An agreement made between two people or groups in which each side gives up some of the things they want so that both sides are happy at the end.
Example
After lengthy talks the two sides finally reached a compromise.
conception
An understanding or a belief of what something/somebody is or what something/somebody should be.
Example
Marx’s conception of social justice
concession
Something that you allow or do, or allow somebody to have, in order to end an argument or to make a situation less difficult.
Example
The firm will be forced to make concessions if it wants to avoid a strike.
confession
A statement that a person makes, admitting that they are guilty of a crime; the act of making such a statement.
Example
After hours of questioning by police, she made a full confession.
confirmation
A statement, letter, etc. that shows that something is true, correct or definite.
Example
I'm still waiting for confirmation of the test results.
confrontation
A situation in which there is anger between people or groups who disagree because they have different opinions.
Example
She wanted to avoid another confrontation with her father.
congregation
A group of people who are gathered together in a church for a religious service, not including the priest and choir.
Example
The congregation stood to sing the hymn.
consensus
An opinion that all members of a group agree with.
Example
She is skilled at achieving consensus on sensitive issues.
consent
Permission to do something, especially given by somebody in authority.
Example
The written consent of a parent is required.
consistency
The quality of always behaving in the same way or of having the same opinions, standard, etc.; the quality of being consistent.
Example
She has played with great consistency all season.
constraint
A thing that limits something, or limits your freedom to do something.
Example
constraints of time/money/space
consultation
The act of discussing something with somebody or with a group of people before making a decision about it.
Example
a consultation document/paper/period/process
contempt
The feeling that somebody/something is without value and deserves no respect at all.
Example
with contempt, She looked at him with contempt.
contender
A person or team with a chance of winning a competition.
Example
a contender for a gold medal in the Olympics
contention
Anger between people who disagree.
Example
One area of contention is the availability of nursery care.
contractor
A person or company that has a contract to do work or provide goods or services for another company.
Example
a building/roofing/electrical contractor
contradiction
A lack of agreement between facts, opinions, actions, etc.
Example
contradiction (between A and B), There is a contradiction between the two sets of figures.
contrary
The opposite fact, event or situation.
Example
In the end the contrary was proved true: he was innocent and she was guilty.
contributor
A person who writes articles for a magazine, book or website, or who talks on a radio or television programme or at a meeting.
Example
a regular contributor to this magazine
conversion
The act or process of changing something from one form, use or system to another.
Example
Their main business is the conversion of farm buildings into family homes.
conviction
The act of finding somebody guilty of a crime in court; the fact of having been found guilty.
Example
He plans to appeal against his conviction.
coordination
The act of making parts of something, groups of people, etc. work together in an efficient and organized way.
Example
The aim was to improve the coordination of services.
coordinator
A person who organizes the different parts of an activity and the people involved in it so that it works well.
Example
The campaign needs an effective coordinator.
cop
A police officer.
Example
Somebody call the cops!
copper
A chemical element. Copper is a soft red-brown metal used for making electric wires, pipes and coins.
Example
a copper mine
copyright
If a person or an organization holds the copyright on a piece of writing, music, etc., they are the only people who have the legal right to publish, broadcast, perform it, etc., and other people must ask their permission to use it or any part of it.
Example
Copyright expires seventy years after the death of the author.
correction
A change that makes something more accurate than it was before.
Example
I've made a few small corrections to your report.
correlation
A connection between two things in which one thing changes as the other does.
Example
correlation between A and B, There is a direct correlation between exposure to sun and skin cancer.
correspondence
The letters, emails, etc. a person sends and receives.
Example
personal/private correspondence
correspondent
A person who reports news from a particular country or on a particular subject for a newspaper or a television or radio station.
Example
She's the BBC's political correspondent.
corruption
Dishonest or illegal behaviour, especially of people in authority.
Example
allegations of bribery and corruption
councilor
A member of a council.
Example
The city councilor proposed a new law.
counseling
The provision of assistance and guidance in resolving personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties.
Example
He is seeking counseling for his anxiety.
counselor
A person trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems.
Example
The school counselor helps students with their issues.
counterpart
A person or thing that has the same position or function as somebody/something else in a different place or situation.
Example
The Foreign Minister held talks with his Chinese counterpart.
coup
A sudden change of government that is illegal and often violent.
Example
He seized power in a military coup in 2008.
creator
A person who has made or invented a particular thing.
Example
Walt Disney, the creator of Mickey Mouse
critique
A piece of written criticism of a set of ideas, a work of art, etc.
Example
She wrote a feminist critique of Freud's theories.
crown
An object in the shape of a circle, usually made of gold and precious stones, that a king or queen wears on his or her head on official occasions.
Example
The crown was placed upon the new monarch's head.
crystal
A small piece of a substance with many even sides, that is formed naturally when the substance becomes solid.
Example
ice/salt crystals
cult
A way of life, an attitude, an idea, etc. that has become very popular.
Example
the cult of physical fitness
curiosity
A strong desire to know about something.
Example
Children show curiosity about everything.
custody
The legal right or duty to take care of or keep somebody/something; the act of taking care of something/somebody.
Example
Who will have custody of the children?
cutting
An article or a story that you cut from a newspaper or magazine and keep.
Example
newspaper/press cuttings
dam
A barrier that is built across a river in order to stop the water from flowing, used especially to make a reservoir (= a lake for storing water) or to produce electricity.
Example
the Narmada dam in India
dawn
The time of day when light first appears.
Example
at dawn, They start work at dawn.
debris
Pieces of wood, metal, building materials, etc. that are left after something has been destroyed.
Example
Emergency teams are still clearing the debris from the plane crash.
declaration
An official or formal statement, especially about the plans of a government or an organization; the act of making such a statement.
Example
to issue/sign a declaration
dedication
The hard work and effort that somebody puts into an activity or a purpose because they think it is important.
Example
hard work and dedication
deed
A thing that somebody does that is usually very good or very bad.
Example
It's a stirring tale of heroic deeds.
default
What happens or appears if you do not make any other choice or change, especially in a computer program.
Example
The default is fifty lines.
defect
A fault in something or in the way it has been made that means that it is not perfect.
Example
a defect in the glass
deficiency
The state of not having, or not having enough of, something that is essential.
Example
Vitamin deficiency in the diet can cause illness.
deficit
The amount by which money spent or owed is greater than money earned in a particular period of time.
Example
a budget/trade deficit
delegation
A group of people who represent the views of an organization, a country, etc.
Example
the Dutch delegation to the United Nations
demon
An evil spirit.
Example
The people believed the girl was possessed by demons.
denial
A statement that something is not true or does not exist; the action of denying something.
Example
the prisoner’s repeated denials of the charges against him
density
The quality of being dense; the degree to which something is dense.
Example
The population density in this city is very high.
dependence
The state of needing the help and support of somebody/something in order to survive or be successful.
Example
Our relationship was based on mutual dependence.
deployment
The act of moving soldiers or weapons into a position where they are ready for military action.
Example
the deployment of peacekeeping forces
deputy
A person who is the next most important person below a business manager, a head of a school, a political leader, etc. and who does that person’s job when they are away.
Example
I'm acting as deputy till the manager returns.
descent
An action of coming or going down.
Example
The plane began its descent to Heathrow.
desktop
A screen on a computer that shows the icons of programs and files that can be used.
Example
desktop icons
detection
The process of discovering or noticing something, especially something that is not easy to see, hear, etc.; the fact of being discovered or noticed.
Example
crime prevention and detection
detention
The state of being kept in a place, especially a prison, and prevented from leaving.
Example
They were sentenced to 12 months' detention in a young offender institution.
devil
The most powerful evil being.
Example
belief in the Devil
diagnosis
The act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness or a problem.
Example
a diagnosis of lung cancer
dictator
A political leader who has complete power over a country, especially one who has gained it using military force.
Example
The country suffered at the hands of a series of military dictators.
dignity
A calm and serious manner that deserves respect.
Example
She accepted the criticism with quiet dignity.
dilemma
A situation that makes problems, often one in which you have to make a very difficult choice between things of equal importance.
Example
I could see no way of resolving this moral dilemma.
dimension
A measurement in space, for example how high, wide or long something is.
Example
We measured the dimensions of the kitchen.
diplomat
A person whose job is to represent his or her country in a foreign country, for example, in an embassy.
Example
Washington's top diplomat in Havana
directory
A book or electronic resource containing lists of information, usually in alphabetical order, for example people’s phone numbers or the names and addresses of businesses in a particular area.
Example
a telephone/trade directory
disclosure
The act of making something known or public that was previously secret or private.
Example
the newspaper’s disclosure of defence secrets
discourse
A long and serious treatment or discussion of a subject in speech or writing.
Example
a discourse on issues of gender and sexuality
discretion
The freedom or power to decide what should be done in a particular situation.
Example
I'll leave it up to you to use your discretion.
discrimination
The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others.
Example
race or sex)
dismissal
The act of dismissing somebody from their job; an example of this.
Example
He still hopes to win his claim against unfair dismissal.
disposal
The act of getting rid of something.
Example
The council is responsible for waste disposal and street cleaning.
dispute
An argument between two people, groups or countries; discussion about a subject on which people disagree.
Example
industrial/pay disputes
disruption
A situation in which it is difficult for something to continue in the normal way; the act of stopping something from continuing in the normal way.
Example
We aim to help you move house with minimum disruption to yourself.
distinction
A clear difference or contrast especially between people or things that are similar or related.
Example
distinctions between traditional and modern societies
distress
A feeling of great worry or unhappiness; great mental pain.
Example
The newspaper article caused the actor considerable distress.
doctrine
A belief or set of beliefs held and taught by a Church, a political party, etc.
Example
the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty
documentation
The documents that are required for something, or that give evidence or proof of something.
Example
I couldn't enter the country because I didn't have all the necessary documentation.
dominance
The fact of being more important, powerful or easy to notice than somebody/something else.
Example
political/economic dominance
donor
A person or an organization that makes a gift of money, clothes, food, etc. to a charity, etc.
Example
international aid donors (= countries that give money, etc. to help other countries)
dose
An amount of a medicine or a drug that is taken once, or regularly over a period of time.
Example
a high/low/lethal dose
duo
Two people who perform together or are often seen or thought of together.
Example
the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy
earnings
The money that you earn for the work that you do.
Example
a rise in average earnings
echo
The reflecting of sound off a wall or inside a particular space so that a noise appears to be repeated; a sound that is reflected back in this way.
Example
There was an echo on the phone and I couldn't hear clearly.
educator
A person whose job is to teach or educate people.
Example
adult educators (= who teach adults)
effectiveness
The fact of producing the result that is wanted or intended; the fact of producing a successful result.
Example
to check the effectiveness of the security system
elite
A small group of people in a society, etc. who are powerful and have a lot of influence, because they are rich, intelligent, etc.
Example
a member of the ruling/intellectual elite
embarrassment
Shy, uncomfortable or guilty feelings; a feeling of being embarrassed.
Example
I nearly died of embarrassment when he said that.
embassy
A group of officials led by an ambassador who represent their government in a foreign country.
Example
embassy officials
emergence
The fact of somebody/something moving out of or away from something and becoming possible to see.
Example
the island’s emergence from the sea 3 000 years ago
encouragement
The act of encouraging somebody to do something; something that encourages somebody.
Example
a few words of encouragement
enforcement
The act of making people obey a particular law or rule.
Example
strict enforcement of regulations
engagement
An agreement to marry somebody; the period during which two people are engaged.
Example
Their engagement was announced in the local paper.
enterprise
A company or business.
Example
He is in charge of an enterprise with a turnover of $26 billion.
enthusiast
A person who is very interested in something and spends a lot of time doing it.
Example
a football enthusiast
entity
Something that exists separately from other things and has its own identity.
Example
The unit has become part of a larger department and no longer exists as a separate entity.
epidemic
A large number of cases of a particular disease or medical condition happening at the same time in a particular community.
Example
the outbreak of a flu epidemic
equality
The fact of being equal in rights, status, advantages, etc.
Example
racial/social/gender equality
equation
A statement showing that two amounts or values are equal, for example 2x + y = 54.
Example
the numbers on the right-hand side of the equation
essence
The most important quality or feature of something, that makes it what it is.
Example
His paintings capture the essence of France.
establishment
An organization, a large institution or a hotel.
Example
The visa is for foreign nationals wishing to study at a university, college or similar educational establishment.
excellence
The quality of being extremely good.
Example
a reputation for academic excellence
excess
More than is necessary, reasonable or acceptable.
Example
You can throw away any excess.
exclusion
The act of preventing somebody/something from entering a place or taking part in something.
Example
He was disappointed with his exclusion from the England squad.
execution
The act of killing somebody, especially as a legal punishment.
Example
He faced execution by hanging for murder.
expenditure
The act of spending or using money; an amount of money spent.
Example
a reduction in public/government/military expenditure
exploitation
A situation in which somebody treats somebody else in an unfair way, especially in order to make money from their work.
Example
the exploitation of children
extremist
A person whose opinions, especially about religion or politics, are extreme, and who may do things that are violent or illegal for what they believe.
Example
left-wing/right-wing/political/religious extremists
faction
A small group of people within a larger one, whose members have some different aims and beliefs to those of the larger group.
Example
There are rival factions within the administration.
faculty
A department or group of related departments in a college or university.
Example
the Faculty of Law
fairness
The quality of treating people equally or in a way that is reasonable.
Example
The fairness of the judicial system is being questioned.
feat
An action or a piece of work that needs skill, strength or courage.
Example
The tunnel is a remarkable feat of engineering.
felony
A serious crime.
Example
He was charged with a felony.
feminist
A person who supports the belief that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men.
Example
Nineteenth-century feminists demanded equal education and employment opportunities for single women.
fiber
A thread or filament from which a vegetable tissue, mineral substance, or textile is formed.
Example
The rope is made of strong fiber.
filmmaker
A person who directs the making of a film.
Example
The filmmaker is known for his unique style.
firearm
A gun that can be carried.
Example
The police were issued with firearms.
flaw
A mistake in something that means that it is not correct or does not work correctly.
Example
The argument is full of fundamental flaws.
fleet
A group of military ships commanded by the same person.
Example
a fleet of destroyers
flexibility
The ability to change to suit new conditions or situations.
Example
The new system offers a much greater degree of flexibility in the way work is organized.
fluid
A liquid; a substance that can flow.
Example
body fluids (= for example, blood)
footage
Part of a film showing a particular event.
Example
old film footage of the moon landing
formula
A series of letters, numbers or symbols that represent a rule or law.
Example
This formula is used to calculate the area of a circle.
franchise
Formal permission given by a company to somebody who wants to sell its goods or services in a particular area; formal permission given by a government to somebody who wants to operate a public service as a business.
Example
a franchise agreement/company
freshman
A first-year student at a university, college, or high school.
Example
She is a freshman at Harvard.
frustration
The feeling of being frustrated.
Example
in frustration, Dave thumped the table in frustration.
fundraising
The activity of collecting money for a charity or organization, often by organizing social events or entertainments.
Example
The hospice is planning a major fundraising event for June.
gallon
A unit for measuring liquid. In the UK, Canada and other countries it is equal to about 4.5 litres; in the US it is equal to about 3.8 litres. There are four quarts in a gallon.
Example
The tankers carried 130 000 gallons of fuel.
gambling
The activity of playing games of chance for money and of betting on horses, etc.
Example
online/internet gambling
gathering
A meeting of people for a particular purpose.
Example
a social/family gathering
gear
Equipment in a vehicle that changes the relation between engine speed (or pedal speed on a bicycle) and the speed of the wheels moving forwards or backwards.
Example
Careless use of the clutch may damage the gears.
genocide
The murder of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group, with the aim of destroying that nation or group.
Example
Refugees gave accounts of the mass genocide.
glimpse
A sight of somebody/something for a very short time, when you do not see the person or thing completely.
Example
He caught a glimpse of her in the crowd.
glory
Great success that brings somebody praise and honour and makes them famous.
Example
Olympic glory in the 100 metres
governance
The activity of governing a country or controlling a company or an organization; the way in which a country is governed or a company or institution is controlled.
Example
He emphasized the company's commitment to high standards of corporate governance.
grace
An attractive quality of movement that is smooth and done with control; a simple and beautiful quality.
Example
She moves with the natural grace of a ballerina.
grave
A place in the ground where a dead person is buried.
Example
We visited Grandma's grave.
gravity
The force that attracts objects in space towards each other, and that on the earth pulls them towards the centre of the planet, so that things fall to the ground when they are dropped.
Example
Newton’s law of gravity
grid
A pattern of straight lines, usually crossing each other to form squares.
Example
New York’s grid of streets
guerrilla
A member of a small group of soldiers who are not part of an official army and who fight against official soldiers, usually to try to change the government.
Example
urban guerrillas (= those who fight in towns)
guidance
Help or advice that is given to somebody, especially by somebody older or with more experience.
Example
guidance for teachers on how to use video in the classroom
guilt
The unhappy feelings caused by knowing or thinking that you have done something wrong.
Example
She had feelings of guilt about leaving her children and going to work.
gut
The tube in the body through which food passes when it leaves the stomach.
Example
It can take up to 72 hours for food to pass through the gut.
handful
The amount of something that can be held in one hand.
Example
a handful of rice
handling
The way that somebody deals with or treats a situation, a person, an animal, etc.
Example
I was impressed by his handling of the affair.
harassment
The act of annoying or worrying somebody by putting pressure on them or saying or doing unpleasant things to them.
Example
sexual/racial harassment
hardware
The machines and electronic parts in a computer or other electronic system.
Example
We supply computer hardware to businesses.
harmony
A state of peaceful existence and agreement.
Example
social/racial harmony
hatred
A very strong feeling of dislike for somebody/something.
Example
He looked at me with intense hatred.
hazard
Something that can be dangerous or cause damage.
Example
a fire/safety hazard
heritage
The history, traditions, buildings and objects that a country or society has had for many years and that are considered an important part of its character.
Example
Spain’s rich cultural heritage
hierarchy
A system, especially in a society or an organization, in which people are organized into different levels of importance from highest to lowest.
Example
the social/political hierarchy
hint
Something that you say or do in an indirect way in order to show somebody what you are thinking.
Example
He gave a broad hint (= one that was obvious) that he was thinking of retiring.
horn
A hard pointed part that grows, usually in pairs, on the heads of some animals, such as sheep and cows. Horns are often curved.
Example
a large bull with curved horns
hostage
A person who is captured and held prisoner by a person or group, and who may be injured or killed if people do not do what the person or group is asking.
Example
Three children were taken hostage during the bank robbery.
hostility
Aggressive or unfriendly feelings or behaviour.
Example
There was a barely veiled hostility in her tone.
humanity
People in general.
Example
He was found guilty of crimes against humanity.
hydrogen
A colourless gas that is the lightest of all chemical elements and combines with oxygen to form water.
Example
Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen.
identification
The process of showing, proving or recognizing who or what somebody/something is.
Example
The identification of the crash victims was a long and difficult task.
idiot
A rude way to refer to somebody who you think is very stupid.
Example
When I lost my passport, I felt such an idiot.
ignorance
A lack of knowledge or information about something.
Example
They fought a long battle against prejudice and ignorance.
imagery
Language that produces pictures in the minds of people reading or listening.
Example
poetic imagery
implementation
The act of making something that has been officially decided start to happen or be used.
Example
the implementation of the new system
inability
The fact of not being able to do something.
Example
the government’s inability to provide basic services
incarceration
The state of being imprisoned.
Example
His incarceration lasted for five years.
incidence
The extent to which something happens or has an effect.
Example
an area with a high incidence of crime
inclusion
The fact of including somebody/something; the fact of being included.
Example
His inclusion in the team is in doubt.
indicator
A sign that shows you what something is like or how a situation is changing.
Example
The economic indicators are better than expected.
indictment
A sign that a system, society, etc. is very bad or very wrong.
Example
The poverty in our cities is a damning indictment of modern society.
inequality
The unfair difference between groups of people in society, when some have more wealth, status or opportunities than others.
Example
We need to tackle inequality of opportunity wherever we find it.
infant
A baby or very young child.
Example
a nursery for infants under two
injection
An act of injecting somebody with a drug or other substance.
Example
to give somebody an injection
injustice
The fact of a situation being unfair and of people not being treated equally; an unfair act or an example of unfair treatment.
Example
We are committed to fighting against poverty and injustice.
inmate
One of the people living in an institution such as a prison or a psychiatric hospital.
Example
The jail has 500 inmates.
insertion
The act of putting something inside something else; a thing that is put inside something else.
Example
An examination is carried out before the insertion of the tube.
insider
A person who knows a lot about a group or an organization, because they are part of it.
Example
The situation was described by one insider as ‘absolute chaos’.
inspection
An official visit to a school, factory, etc. in order to check that rules are being obeyed and that standards are acceptable.
Example
Regular inspections are carried out at the prison.
inspiration
The process that takes place when somebody sees or hears something that causes them to have exciting new ideas or makes them want to create something, especially in art, music or literature.
Example
Dreams can be a rich source of inspiration for an artist.
instinct
A natural quality that makes people and animals tend to behave in a particular way using the knowledge and abilities that they were born with rather than thought or training.
Example
She did not seem to have any of the usual maternal instincts.
intake
The amount of food, drink, etc. that you take into your body.
Example
high fluid intake
integration
The act or process of combining two or more things so that they work together.
Example
The aim is to promote closer economic integration.
integrity
The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles.
Example
personal/professional/artistic integrity
intellectual
A person who is well educated and enjoys activities in which they have to think seriously about things.
Example
He was a leading intellectual of his day.
intensity
The state or quality of being intense.
Example
intensity of light/sound/colour
intent
What you intend to do.
Example
She denies possessing the drug with intent to supply.
interface
The way a computer program presents information to a user or receives information from a user, in particular the layout of the screen and the menus.
Example
the user interface
interference
The act of getting involved in and trying to influence a situation that should not really involve you, in a way that annoys other people.
Example
They resent foreign interference in the internal affairs of their country.
interior
The inside part of something.
Example
the interior of a building/a car
intersection
A point where two or more things intersect.
Example
The accident occurred at the intersection.
intervention
Action taken to improve or help a situation.
Example
calls for government intervention to save the steel industry
inventory
A complete list of items such as property, goods in stock, or the contents of a building.
Example
We need to take an inventory of the supplies.
investigator
A person who examines a situation such as an accident or a crime to find out the truth.
Example
air safety investigators
involvement
The act of taking part in something or dealing with somebody.
Example
US involvement in European wars
isolation
The act of separating somebody/something; the state of being separate.
Example
geographical isolation
jurisdiction
The authority that an official organization has to make legal decisions about somebody/something.
Example
The English court had no jurisdiction over the defendants.
justification
A good reason why something exists or is done.
Example
I can see no possible justification for any further tax increases.
kidney
Either of the two organs in the body that remove waste products from the blood and produce urine.
Example
a kidney infection
kingdom
A country that has a king or queen as head of state (= official leader of the country).
Example
the United Kingdom
landlord
A person or company from whom you rent a room, a house, an office, etc.
Example
a buy-to-let landlord (= who buys houses and flats in order to rent them out)
landmark
Something, such as a large building, that you can see clearly from a distance and that will help you to know where you are.
Example
The Empire State Building is a familiar landmark on the New York skyline.
laser
A device that gives out light in which all the waves oscillate (= change direction and strength) together, typically producing a powerful beam of light that can be used for cutting metal, in medical operations, etc.
Example
a laser beam
lawmaker
A person who makes laws, especially a member of a legislature.
Example
The lawmaker introduced a new bill.
lawn
An area of ground covered in short grass in a garden or park, or used for playing a game on.
Example
In summer we have to mow the lawn twice a week.
lawsuit
A claim or complaint against somebody that a person or an organization can make in court.
Example
He filed a lawsuit against his record label.
layout
The way in which the parts of something such as the page of a book, a website, a garden or a building are arranged.
Example
the layout of streets
legacy
Money or property that is given to you by somebody when they die.
Example
They each received a legacy of $5 000.
legislation
A law or a set of laws passed by a parliament.
Example
an important piece of legislation
legislature
A group of people who have the power to make and change laws.
Example
a democratically elected legislature
liberation
The act or process of freeing a country or a person from the control of somebody else.
Example
a war of liberation
likelihood
The chance of something happening; how likely something is to happen.
Example
There is very little likelihood of that happening.
lineup
An arrangement of people in a line.
Example
The police conducted a lineup to identify the suspect.
listing
A list, especially an official or published list of people or things, often arranged in alphabetical order.
Example
a comprehensive listing of all airlines
liter
A metric unit of capacity, equal to 1,000 cubic centimeters.
Example
Please buy a liter of milk.
literacy
The ability to read and write.
Example
a campaign to promote adult literacy
liver
A large organ in the body that cleans the blood and produces bile.
Example
liver disease
logic
A way of thinking or explaining something.
Example
I fail to see the logic behind his argument.
loop
A shape like a curve or circle made by a line curving right round.
Example
The road went in a huge loop around the lake.
loyalty
The quality of being constant in your support of somebody/something.
Example
Can I count on your loyalty?
machinery
Machines as a group, especially large ones.
Example
agricultural/industrial machinery
magnitude
The great size or importance of something; the degree to which something is large or important.
Example
We did not realize the magnitude of the problem.
mainland
The main area of land of a country or region, not including any islands near to it.
Example
to/from the mainland, a boat to/from the mainland
maintenance
The act of keeping something in good condition by checking or repairing it regularly.
Example
The school pays for heating and the maintenance of the buildings.
mandate
The authority to do something, given to a government or other organization by the people who vote for it in an election.
Example
It is undemocratic to govern an area without an electoral mandate.
manipulation
Behaviour that controls or influences somebody/something, often in a dishonest way so that they do not realize it.
Example
Advertising like this is a cynical manipulation of the elderly.
manuscript
A copy of a book, piece of music, etc. before it has been printed.
Example
an unpublished/original manuscript
marketplace
The activity of competing with other companies to buy and sell goods, services, etc.
Example
Companies must be able to survive in the marketplace.
mask
Something that you wear over your face to hide it, or to frighten or entertain other people.
Example
The robbers wore stocking masks.
massacre
The killing of a large number of people especially in a cruel way.
Example
the bloody massacre of innocent civilians
meantime
The period of time between two events or until a particular event happens.
Example
I'm changing my email address but for the meantime you can use the old one.
meditation
The practice of focusing your mind in silence, especially for religious reasons or in order to make your mind calm.
Example
She found peace through yoga and meditation.
melody
A tune, especially the main tune in a piece of music written for several instruments or voices.
Example
a haunting melody
memo
An official note from one person to another in the same organization.
Example
to write/send a memo
memorial
A statue, stone, etc. that is built in order to remind people of an important past event or of a famous person who has died.
Example
a war memorial (= in memory of soldiers who died in a war)
mentor
An experienced person who advises and helps somebody with less experience over a period of time.
Example
She was a friend and mentor to many young actors.
merchant
A person who buys and sells goods in large quantities, especially one who imports and exports goods.
Example
a coal/wine merchant
merger
The act of joining two or more organizations or businesses into one.
Example
If the merger goes through, thousands of jobs will be lost.
merit
The quality of being good and of deserving praise or reward.
Example
a work of outstanding artistic merit
methodology
A set of methods and principles used to perform a particular activity.
Example
recent changes in the methodology of language teaching
midst
The middle part of something.
Example
Such beauty was unexpected in the midst of the city.
migration
The movement every year of large numbers of birds or animals from one place to another.
Example
the seasonal migration of blue whales
militia
A group of people who are not professional soldiers but who have had military training and can act as an army.
Example
He said he would call out the state militia if the rebels did not surrender.
mill
A building fitted with equipment for grinding grain into flour; a machine for grinding grain.
Example
The old mill has been converted into apartments.
ministry
A government department that has a particular area of responsibility.
Example
The Ministry of Defence has issued the following statement.
misery
Great physical or mental pain.
Example
Fame brought her nothing but misery.
missile
A weapon that is sent through the air and that explodes when it hits the thing that it is aimed at.
Example
nuclear missiles
mob
A large crowd of people, especially one that may become violent or cause trouble.
Example
an angry/unruly mob
mobility
The ability to move easily from one place, social class or job to another.
Example
social/geographical/career mobility
modification
The act or process of changing something in order to improve it or make it more acceptable; a change that is made.
Example
Considerable modification of the existing system is needed.
module
A self-contained unit or item.
Example
The software is organized into several modules.
momentum
The ability to keep increasing or developing.
Example
The fight for his release gathers momentum each day.
monk
A member of a religious group of men who often live apart from other people in a monastery and who do not marry or have personal possessions.
Example
Benedictine/Buddhist monks
monopoly
The complete control of trade in particular goods or the supply of a particular service; a type of goods or a service that is controlled in this way.
Example
In the past central government had a monopoly on television broadcasting.
morality
Principles relating to right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.
Example
matters of public/private morality
motive
A reason for doing something.
Example
There seemed to be no motive for the murder.
nest
A hollow place or structure that a bird makes or chooses for laying its eggs in and sheltering its young.
Example
sparrows building a nest of twigs and dry grass
newsletter
A report containing news of the activities of a club or organization that is sent regularly to all its members.
Example
Our sailing club produces a monthly newsletter.
niche
A comfortable or suitable role, job, way of life, etc.
Example
He eventually found his niche in sports journalism.
nomination
The act of suggesting or choosing somebody as a candidate in an election, or for a job or an award; the fact of being suggested for this.
Example
Membership of the club is by nomination only.
nursery
A place where young children are cared for while their parents are at work; a day nursery or nursery school.
Example
at nursery, Her youngest child is at nursery now.
objection
A reason why you do not like or are opposed to something; a statement about this.
Example
I'd like to come too, if you have no objection.
obsession
The state in which a person’s mind is completely filled with thoughts of one particular thing or person in a way that is not reasonable or normal.
Example
Her fear of flying is bordering on obsession.
occurrence
Something that happens or exists.
Example
a common/everyday/frequent/regular occurrence
offering
Something that is produced for other people to use, watch, enjoy, etc.
Example
the latest offering from the Canadian-born writer
optimism
A feeling that good things will happen and that something will be successful.
Example
a mood of cautious optimism
orientation
A person’s basic beliefs or feelings about a particular subject.
Example
religious/political orientation
outbreak
The sudden start of something unpleasant, especially violence or a disease.
Example
the outbreak of war
outing
A trip that you go on for pleasure or education, usually with a group of people and lasting no more than one day.
Example
a family outing
outlet
A shop or an organization that sells goods made by a particular company or of a particular type.
Example
The business has 34 retail outlets in this state alone.
outlook
The attitude to life and the world of a particular person, group or culture.
Example
Travel broadens your outlook.
outrage
A strong feeling of shock and anger.
Example
The judge's remarks caused public outrage.
outsider
A person who is not accepted as a member of a society, group, etc.
Example
Here she felt she would always be an outsider.
pad
A thick piece of soft material that is used, for example, for cleaning or protecting something or for holding liquid.
Example
medicated cleansing pads for sensitive skin
parameter
Something that decides or limits the way in which something can be done.
Example
to set/define the parameters
passing
The process of time going by.
Example
The colour of the wood darkens with the passing of time.
pastor
A minister in charge of a Christian church or group, especially in some Nonconformist churches.
Example
He was ordained a pastor in the Lutheran Church.
patch
A small area of something, especially one which is different from the area around it.
Example
a black dog with a white patch on its back
patent
An official right to be the only person to make, use or sell a product or an invention; a document that proves this.
Example
to apply for/obtain/take out a patent on an invention
pathway
A track that serves as a path.
Example
They came out of the woods and onto a pathway.
patron
A person who gives money and support to artists and writers.
Example
Frederick the Great was the patron of many artists.
peak
The point when somebody/something is best, most successful, strongest, etc.
Example
Traffic reaches its peak between 8 and 9 in the morning.
peasant
(especially in the past, or in poorer countries) a farmer who owns or rents a small piece of land.
Example
peasant farmers
personnel
The people who work for an organization or one of the armed forces.
Example
There is a severe shortage of skilled personnel.
petition
A written document signed by a large number of people that asks somebody in a position of authority to do or change something.
Example
Would you like to sign our petition against experiments on animals?
philosopher
A person who studies or writes about philosophy.
Example
We studied the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
physician
A doctor, especially one who is a specialist in general medicine and not surgery.
Example
Dr Dennett is a practicing family physician in Atlanta.
pioneer
A person who is the first to study and develop a particular area of knowledge, culture, etc. that other people then continue to develop.
Example
a pioneer in the field of microsurgery
pipeline
A series of pipes that are usually underground and are used for carrying oil, gas, etc. over long distances.
Example
There are plans to lay a gas pipeline through the region.
pirate
(especially in the past) a person on a ship who attacks other ships at sea in order to steal from them.
Example
There were reports that a pirate ship had come looking for treasure in the cove.
pit
A large deep hole in the ground.
Example
We dug a deep pit in the yard.
plea
A serious emotional request, especially for something needing action now.
Example
She made an impassioned plea for help.
pledge
A serious promise.
Example
a pledge of support
pole
A long thin straight piece of wood or metal, especially one with the end placed in the ground, used as a support.
Example
a tent pole
pond
A small area of still water, especially one that is artificial.
Example
a fish pond
portfolio
A thin flat case used for carrying documents, drawings, etc.
Example
I left my portfolio on the train.
practitioner
A person who works in a profession, especially medicine or law.
Example
dental practitioners
precision
The quality of being exact, accurate and careful.
Example
Her writing is imaginative but lacks precision.
predator
An animal that kills and eats other animals.
Example
Some animals have no natural predators.
predecessor
A person who did a job before somebody else.
Example
The new president reversed many of the policies of his predecessor.
pregnancy
The state of being pregnant.
Example
a pregnancy test
prejudice
An unreasonable dislike of or preference for a person, group, custom, etc., especially when it is based on their race, religion, sex, etc.
Example
a victim of racial prejudice
premise
A statement or an idea that forms the basis for a reasonable line of argument.
Example
the basic premise of her argument
premium
An amount of money that you pay once or regularly for an insurance policy.
Example
a monthly premium of £6.25
prescription
An official piece of paper on which a doctor writes the type of medicine you should have, and which enables you to get it from a chemist's.
Example
The doctor gave me a prescription for antibiotics.
preservation
The act of keeping something in its original state or in good condition.
Example
building/environmental/food preservation
presidency
The job of being president of a country or an organization; the period of time somebody holds this job.
Example
the current holder of the EU presidency
prevalence
The fact of existing or being very common at a particular time or in a particular place.
Example
an increase in the prevalence of smoking among young people
prevention
The act of stopping something bad from happening.
Example
accident/crime prevention
prey
An animal, a bird, etc. that is hunted, killed and eaten by another.
Example
The lion will often stalk its prey for hours.
principal
The person who is in charge of a college or (in Scotland and Canada) a university.
Example
Peter Brown, principal of St John’s College
privatization
The act of selling a business or an industry so that it is no longer owned by the government.
Example
There were fears that privatization would lead to job losses.
privilege
A special right or advantage that a particular person or group of people has.
Example
Education should be a universal right and not a privilege.
proceeding
The process of using a court to settle an argument or to deal with a complaint.
Example
court/legal/judicial proceedings
proceeds
The money that you receive when you sell something or organize a performance, etc.; profits.
Example
She sold her car and bought a piano with the proceeds.
processing
The treatment of raw material, food, etc. in order to change it, preserve it, etc.
Example
the food processing industry
processor
A machine, person or company that processes things.
Example
The company is Ireland's largest dairy processor.
productivity
The rate at which a worker, a company or a country produces goods, and the amount produced, compared with how much time, work and money is needed to produce them.
Example
high/improved/increased productivity
propaganda
Ideas or statements that may be false or present only one side of an argument that are used in order to gain support for a political leader, party, etc.
Example
enemy propaganda
proposition
An idea or a plan of action that is suggested, especially in business.
Example
I'd like to put a business proposition to you.
prosecution
The process of trying to prove in court that somebody is guilty of a crime (= of prosecuting them); the process of being officially charged with a crime in court.
Example
Prosecution for a first minor offence rarely leads to imprisonment.
prosecutor
A public official who charges somebody officially with a crime and prosecutes them in court.
Example
the public/state prosecutor
prosperity
The state of being successful, especially in making money.
Example
Our future prosperity depends on economic growth.
protocol
A system of fixed rules and formal behaviour used at official meetings, usually between governments.
Example
a breach of protocol
province
One of the areas that some countries are divided into with its own local government.
Example
the provinces of Canada
provision
The act of supplying somebody with something that they need or want; something that is supplied.
Example
housing provision
pulse
The regular beat of the heart as it sends blood around the body, that can be felt in different places, especially on the inside part of the wrist; the number of times the heart beats in a minute.
Example
a strong/weak pulse
query
A question, especially one asking for information or expressing a doubt about something.
Example
Our assistants will be happy to answer your queries.
quest
A long search for something, especially for some quality such as happiness.
Example
the quest for happiness/knowledge/truth
quota
A limited number or amount of people or things that is officially allowed.
Example
to introduce a strict import quota on grain
radar
A system that uses radio waves to find the position and movement of objects, for example planes and ships, when they cannot be seen.
Example
They located the ship by radar.
rage
A feeling of violent anger that is difficult to control.
Example
His face was dark with rage.
raid
A short surprise attack on an enemy by soldiers, ships or aircraft.
Example
to conduct/launch a raid
ranking
The position of somebody/something on a scale that shows how good or important they are in relation to other similar people or things, especially in sport.
Example
He has improved his ranking this season from 67th to 30th.
ratio
The relationship between two groups of people or things that is represented by two numbers showing how much larger one group is than the other.
Example
The school has a very high teacher-student ratio.
realization
The process of becoming aware of something.
Example
As realization dawned, he went pale.
realm
An area of activity, interest or knowledge.
Example
in the realm of literature
reasoning
The process of thinking about things in a logical way; opinions and ideas that are based on logical thinking.
Example
What is the reasoning behind this decision?
rebel
A person who fights against the government of their country.
Example
rebel forces
rebellion
An attempt by some of the people in a country to change their government, using violence.
Example
The north of the country rose in rebellion against the government.
recipient
A person who receives something.
Example
recipients of awards
reconstruction
The process of changing or improving the condition of something or the way it works; the process of putting something back into the state it was in before.
Example
the reconstruction of the educational system
referendum
An occasion when all the people of a country can vote on an important issue.
Example
Switzerland decided to hold a referendum on joining the EU.
reflection
An image in a mirror, on a shiny surface, on water, etc.
Example
He admired his reflection in the mirror.
refuge
Shelter or protection from danger, trouble, etc.
Example
A further 300 people have taken refuge in the US embassy.
refusal
An act of saying or showing that you will not do, give or accept something.
Example
the refusal of a request/an invitation/an offer
regime
A method or system of government, especially one that has not been elected in a fair way.
Example
a fascist/totalitarian/military, etc. regime
regulator
A person or an organization that officially controls an area of business or industry and makes sure that it is operating fairly.
Example
Ofgas, the gas industry regulator
rehabilitation
The process of helping somebody to return to a normal, healthy life after they have been in prison or very ill.
Example
a drug rehabilitation centre
rejection
The act of refusing to accept or consider something.
Example
Her proposal met with unanimous rejection.
relevance
A close connection with the subject you are discussing or the situation you are in.
Example
I don't see the relevance of your question.
reliability
The quality of being able to be trusted to do what somebody wants or needs.
Example
The incident cast doubt on her motives and reliability.
remainder
The people, things or time that remain.
Example
I kept some of his books and gave away the remainder.
remains
The parts of something that are left after the other parts have been used, eaten, removed, etc.
Example
She fed the remains of her lunch to the dog.
remedy
A way of dealing with or improving an unpleasant or difficult situation.
Example
When the reservoir becomes blocked, the only remedy lies in cleaning the entire system.
reminder
Something that makes you think about or remember somebody/something, that you have forgotten or would like to forget.
Example
The sheer size of the cathedral is a constant reminder of the power of religion.
removal
The act of taking somebody/something away from a particular place.
Example
Clearance of the site required the removal of a number of trees.
rental
The amount of money that you pay to use something for a particular period of time.
Example
Telephone charges include line rental.
replacement
The act of replacing one thing with another, especially something that is newer or better.
Example
the replacement of worn car parts
representation
The act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something.
Example
the negative representation of single mothers in the media
reproduction
The act or process of producing babies, young animals or plants.
Example
sexual reproduction
republic
A country that is governed by a president and politicians elected by the people and where there is no king or queen.
Example
newly independent republics
residue
A small amount of something that remains at the end of a process.
Example
pesticide residues in fruit and vegetables
resignation
The act of giving up your job or position; the occasion when you do this.
Example
a letter of resignation
resistance
Dislike of or opposition to a plan, an idea, etc.; the act of refusing to obey.
Example
As with all new ideas it met with resistance.
restoration
The work of repairing and cleaning an old building, a painting, etc. so that its condition is as good as it originally was.
Example
restoration work
restraint
A rule, a fact, an idea, etc. that limits or controls what people can do.
Example
The government has imposed export restraints on some products.
revelation
A fact that people are made aware of, especially one that has been secret and is surprising.
Example
startling/sensational revelations about her private life
revival
An improvement in the condition or strength of something.
Example
the revival of trade
rhetoric
Speech or writing that is intended to influence people, but that is not completely honest or sincere.
Example
the rhetoric of political slogans
rifle
A gun with a long barrel which you hold to your shoulder to fire.
Example
a hunting rifle
riot
A situation in which a group of people behave in a violent way in a public place, often as a protest.
Example
One prison guard was killed when a riot broke out in the jail.
ritual
A series of actions that are always performed in the same way, especially as part of a religious ceremony.
Example
religious rituals
rod
A long straight piece of wood, metal or glass.
Example
The concrete is reinforced with steel rods.
rookie
A person who is new to an organization or activity.
Example
He is a rookie in the police force.
roster
A list or plan showing turns of duty or leave among those of a group.
Example
Check the work roster to see when you are scheduled.
rotation
The action of an object moving in a circle around a central fixed point.
Example
the daily rotation of the earth on its axis
ruling
An official decision made by somebody in a position of authority, especially a judge.
Example
The court will make its ruling on the case next week.
rumor
A story or statement in general circulation without confirmation or certainty as to facts.
Example
There is a rumor that the company is going to close.
sacrifice
The fact of giving up something important or valuable to you in order to get or do something that seems more important; something that you give up in this way.
Example
The makers of the product assured us that there had been no sacrifice of quality.
saint
A person that the Christian Church recognizes as being very holy, because of the way they have lived or died.
Example
St John
sanction
An official order that limits trade, contact, etc. with a particular country, in order to make it do something, such as obeying international law.
Example
Trade sanctions were imposed against any country that refused to sign the agreement.
scope
The opportunity or ability to do or achieve something.
Example
There's still plenty of scope for improvement.
screw
A thin pointed piece of metal like a nail with a raised spiral line (called a thread) along it and a line or cross cut into its head. Screws are turned and pressed into wood, metal, etc. with a screwdriver in order to fasten two things together.
Example
One of the screws is loose.
scrutiny
Careful and complete examination.
Example
Her argument doesn't really stand up to scrutiny.
seal
An official design or mark, stamped on a document to show that it is real and carries the authority of a particular person or organization.
Example
The letter bore the president's seal.
segment
A part of something that is separate from the other parts or can be considered separately.
Example
She cleaned a small segment of the painting.
senator
A member of a senate.
Example
Senator McCarthy
sensation
A feeling that you get when something affects your body.
Example
a tingling/burning sensation
sensitivity
The ability to understand other people’s feelings.
Example
sensitivity to the needs of children
sentiment
A feeling or an opinion, especially one based on emotions.
Example
the spread of nationalist sentiments
separation
The act of separating people or things; the state of being separate.
Example
the state’s eventual separation from the federation
settlement
An official agreement that ends an argument between two people or groups.
Example
to negotiate a peace settlement
setup
The way in which something is arranged or organized.
Example
The new office has an open-plan setup.
shipping
Ships in general or considered as a group.
Example
The canal is open to shipping.
shoot
The part that grows up from the ground when a plant starts to grow; a new part that grows on plants or trees.
Example
new green shoots
simulation
A situation in which a particular set of conditions is created artificially in order to study or experience something that could exist in reality.
Example
a computer simulation of how the planet functions
sin
An offence against God or against a religious or moral law.
Example
to commit a sin
sketch
A simple picture that is drawn quickly and does not have many details.
Example
The artist is making sketches for his next painting.
slavery
The state of being forced to work as a slave.
Example
to be sold into slavery
slot
A long, narrow opening, into which you put or fit something.
Example
to put some coins in the slot
solidarity
Support by one person or group of people for another because they share feelings, opinions, aims, etc.
Example
community solidarity
sophomore
A second-year student at a university or college.
Example
He is a sophomore at Yale.
sovereignty
Complete power to govern a country.
Example
The country claimed sovereignty over the island.
spam
Advertising material sent by email to people who have not asked for it; advertising material on the internet that is not wanted.
Example
to send/block spam
specimen
A small amount of something that shows what the rest of it is like.
Example
Astronauts have brought back specimens of rock from the moon.
spectacle
A performance or an event that is very impressive and exciting to look at.
Example
The carnival parade was a magnificent spectacle.
spectrum
A band of coloured lights in order of their wavelengths, as seen in a rainbow and into which light may be separated.
Example
A spectrum is formed by a ray of light passing through a prism.
sphere
A solid figure that is completely round, with every point on its surface at an equal distance from the centre.
Example
The Earth is not a perfect sphere.
spine
The row of small bones that are connected together down the middle of the back.
Example
A shiver went down my spine.
spotlight
A light with a single, very bright beam that can be directed at a particular place or person, especially a performer on the stage.
Example
The room was lit by spotlights.
spouse
A husband or wife.
Example
Fill in your spouse’s name here.
spy
A person who tries to get secret information about another country, organization or person, especially somebody who is employed by a government or the police.
Example
He was denounced as a foreign spy.
squad
A section of a police force that deals with a particular type of crime.
Example
the drugs/fraud/bomb/riot squad
stability
The quality or state of being steady and not changing or being upset in any way (= the quality of being stable).
Example
political/economic/social stability
stake
Money that somebody invests in a company.
Example
a 20 per cent stake in the business
stereotype
A fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality and may cause hurt and offence.
Example
cultural/gender/racial stereotypes
stimulus
Something that helps somebody/something to develop better or more quickly.
Example
Books provide children with ideas and a stimulus for play.
storage
The process of keeping something in a particular place until it is needed; the space where things can be kept.
Example
tables that fold flat for storage
strain
Pressure on a system or relationship because great demands are being placed on it.
Example
The transport service cannot cope with the strain of so many additional passengers.
strand
A single thin piece of thread, wire, hair, etc.
Example
He pulled at a loose strand of wool in his sweater.
strip
A long narrow piece of paper, metal, cloth, etc.
Example
a strip of material
submission
The act of accepting that somebody has defeated you and that you must obey them.
Example
a gesture of submission
subscriber
A person who pays money, usually once a year, to receive regular copies of a magazine or newspaper or have access to it online.
Example
subscribers to ‘New Scientist’
subscription
An amount of money that you pay regularly to receive a service, be a member of a club, support a charity or receive regular copies of a newspaper or magazine; the act of paying this money.
Example
an annual subscription
subsidy
Money that is paid by a government or an organization to reduce the costs of services or of producing goods so that their prices can be kept low.
Example
agricultural subsidies
substitution
An act of using one person or thing in the place of another.
Example
Two substitutions were made during the game.
succession
A number of people or things that follow each other in time or order.
Example
a succession of visitors
successor
A person or thing that comes after somebody/something else and takes their/its place.
Example
Who's the likely successor to him as party leader?
summit
The highest point of something, especially the top of a mountain.
Example
We reached the summit at noon.
superintendent
A person who manages or directs a place, department, or organization.
Example
The building superintendent is in charge of maintenance.
supervision
The work or activity involved in being in charge of somebody/something and making sure that everything is done correctly, safely, etc.
Example
Very young children should not be left to play without supervision.
supervisor
A person who supervises somebody/something.
Example
I have a meeting with my supervisor about my research topic.
surplus
An amount that is extra or more than you need.
Example
food surpluses
surveillance
The act of carefully watching a person suspected of a crime or a place where a crime may be committed.
Example
The police are keeping the suspects under constant surveillance.
suspension
The act of officially removing somebody from their job, school, team, etc. for a period of time, usually as a punishment.
Example
suspension from school
suspicion
A feeling that somebody has done something wrong, illegal or dishonest, even though you have no proof.
Example
They drove away slowly to avoid arousing suspicion.
sword
A weapon with a long metal blade (= sharp cutting part) and a handle.
Example
to draw/sheathe a sword (= to take it out of/put it into its cover)
syndrome
A set of physical conditions that show you have a particular disease or medical problem.
Example
PMS or premenstrual syndrome
synthesis
The act of combining separate ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.; a mixture or combination of ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.
Example
synthesis of A with B, the synthesis of art with everyday life
tactic
The particular method you use to achieve something.
Example
They tried all kinds of tactics to get us to go.
taxpayer
A person who pays tax to the government, especially on the money that they earn.
Example
Hundreds of thousands of pounds of taxpayers' money (= money paid in taxes) have been spent on the project.
tenant
A person who pays rent for the use of a room, building, land, etc. to the person who owns it.
Example
They had evicted their tenants for non-payment of rent.
tenure
The period of time when somebody holds an important job, especially a political one; the act of holding an important job.
Example
his four-year tenure as president
terrain
Used to refer to an area of land when you are mentioning its natural features, for example, if it is rough, flat, etc.
Example
difficult/rough/mountainous terrain
testimony
A thing that shows that something else exists or is true.
Example
This increase in exports bears testimony to the successes of industry.
texture
The way a surface, substance or piece of cloth feels when you touch it, for example how rough, smooth, hard or soft it is.
Example
the soft texture of velvet
theology
The study of religion and beliefs.
Example
a degree in theology
thread
A thin string of cotton, wool, silk, etc. used for sewing or making cloth.
Example
a needle and thread
threshold
The floor or ground at the bottom of a doorway, considered as the entrance to a building or room.
Example
He stepped across the threshold.
tide
A regular rise and fall in the level of the sea, caused by the pull of the moon and sun; the flow of water that happens as the sea rises and falls.
Example
the ebb and flow of the tide
timber
Trees that are grown to be used in building or for making things.
Example
the timber industry
tobacco
The dried leaves of the tobacco plant that are used for making cigarettes, smoking in a pipe, etc.
Example
tobacco smoke
tolerance
The quality of being willing to accept or tolerate somebody/something, especially opinions or behaviour that you may not agree with, or people who are not like you.
Example
She had no tolerance for jokes of any kind.
toll
Money that you pay to use a particular road or bridge.
Example
motorway tolls
trademark
A name, symbol or design that a company uses for its products and that cannot be used by anyone else.
Example
‘Big Mac’ is McDonald's best-known trademark.
trail
A long line or series of marks that is left by somebody/something.
Example
a trail of blood
trailer
A truck, or a container with wheels, that is pulled by another vehicle.
Example
a car towing a trailer with a boat on it
transaction
A piece of business that is done between people, especially an act of buying or selling.
Example
financial transactions between companies
transcript
A written or printed copy of words that have been spoken.
Example
a transcript of the interview
transformation
A complete change in somebody/something.
Example
The way in which we work has undergone a complete transformation in the past decade.
transit
The process of being moved or carried from one place to another.
Example
The cost includes transit.
transmission
The act or process of passing something from one person, place or thing to another.
Example
the transmission of the disease
transparency
The quality of something, such as a situation or an argument, that makes it easy to understand.
Example
a need for greater transparency in legal documents
trauma
A mental condition caused by severe shock, stress or fear, especially when the harmful effects last for a long time.
Example
the effects of trauma and stress on the body
treaty
A formal agreement between two or more countries.
Example
the Treaty of Rome
tribute
An act, a statement or a gift that is intended to show your love or respect, especially for a dead person.
Example
At her funeral her oldest friend paid tribute to her life and work.
trio
A group of three people or things.
Example
A trio of English runners featured in the women’s 1 500 metres.
triumph
A great success, achievement or victory.
Example
one of the greatest triumphs of modern science
trophy
An object such as a silver cup that is given as a prize for winning a competition.
Example
a trophy cabinet
trustee
A person or an organization that has control of money or property that has been put into a trust for somebody.
Example
The bank will act as trustees for the estate until the child is 18.
tuition
The act of teaching something, especially to one person or to people in small groups.
Example
She received private tuition in French.
tumor
A swelling of a part of the body, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue.
Example
The doctor found a benign tumor.
turnout
The number of people who attend a particular event.
Example
This year's festival attracted a record turnout.
vacuum
A space that is completely empty of all substances, including all air or other gas.
Example
a vacuum pump (= one that creates a vacuum)
validity
The state of being legally or officially acceptable.
Example
The period of validity of the agreement has expired.
vein
Any of the tubes that carry blood from all parts of the body towards the heart.
Example
the jugular vein
verdict
An official judgement made in court or at an inquest (= an official investigation into somebody's death).
Example
Has the jury reached a verdict?
verse
Writing that is arranged in lines, often with a regular rhythm or pattern of rhyme.
Example
in verse, Most of the play is written in verse, but some of it is in prose.
vessel
A tube that carries blood through the body of a person or an animal, or liquid through the parts of a plant.
Example
to burst/rupture a blood vessel
veteran
A person who has a lot of experience in a particular area or activity.
Example
the veteran American actor, Clint Eastwood
vice
Criminal activities that involve sex or drugs.
Example
At the door were two plain-clothes detectives from the vice squad.
violation
The act of going against or refusing to obey a law, an agreement, etc.
Example
They were in open violation of the treaty.
virtue
Behaviour or attitudes that show high moral standards.
Example
He led a life of virtue.
vow
A solemn and serious promise, often made publicly or as part of a ceremony.
Example
They exchanged vows at a small ceremony in the garden.